No.....      V,?i 


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A.    P.    STANLEY,  C.    KEGAN   PAUL, 

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S.    DAVIDSON,  ROBT.    WALLACE, 

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EDWARD    CAIRD,  T.    K.    CHEYNE, 

JAMES    DONALDSON,  J.    MUIR. 


Any  three  volumes  included  in  a  year's  subscription  in  the 
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A  Committee  selected  from  the  sigiiataries  of  the  original 
Prospectus  agreed  upon  the  works  to  commence  the  sei'ies.  Of 
these,  the  following  were  published  in 

The  First  Year  (1873) : 

1.  Keim  (Th.),  History  op  Jesus  of  JS'azara.     Considered  in  its 

connection  with  the  National  Life  of  Israel,  and  related  in 
detail.  Second  Edition,  re-translated  by  Arthur  Eansom. 
Vol.  I.  Introduction  ;  Survey  of  Sources  ;  Sacred  and  Political 
Groundwork ;  Rehgious  Groundwork. 

2.  Baur  (F.  C),  Paul,  the  Apostle  op  Jesus  Christ,  his  Life 

and  Work,  his  Epistles  and  Doctrine.  A  Contribution  to  a 
Critical  History  of  Primitive  Christianity.  Second  Edition,  by 
Eev.  Allan  IMenzies.     VoL  I. 

3.  Kuenen  (A.),  The  Keligion  op  Israel  to  the  Fall  of  the 

Jewish  State,     Translated  by  A.  H.  May.     Vol.  I. 

The  Secmid  Year  (1874) : 

4.  Kuenen's  Eeligion  of  Israel.    Vol.  11.     Translated  by  A.  H. 

May. 

5.  Bleek's  Lectures  on  the  Apocalypse.    Edited  by  the  Eev.  Dr. 

S.  Davidson. 

6.  Baur's  Paul  ;  the  second  and  concluding  volume.    Translated  by 

the  Eev.  Allan  Menzies. 

The  Third  Year  (1875) : 

7.  Kuenen's  Eeligion  op  Israel  ;  the  third  and  concluding  volume. 

8.  Zeller,  The  Acts  of  the  Apostles  critically  examined.     To 

which  is  pretixed,  Overbeck's  Introduction  from  De  Wette's 
Handbook,  translated  by  Joseph  Dare,  B.A.     Vol.  I. 

9.  Ewald's  Commentary  on  the  Prophets  of  the  Old  Testament, 

Translated  by  the  Eev.  J.  Frederick  Smith.  Vol.  I.  General 
Introduction;  Yoel,  Ainos,  Hosea,  and  Zakharya  9 — 11. 

The  Fouo^th  Year  (1876) : 

10.  Zeller's  Acts  of  the  Apostles,     Vol,  II,  and  last. 

11.  Keim's  History  of  Jesus  op  ISTazara.     Vol.  11.     Translated  by 

the  Eev.  E.  M.  Geldart.  The  Sacred  Youth;  Self-Eecognition ; 
Decision. 

12.  Ewald's  Prophets  of  the  Old  Testament.    Vol,  II,     Yesaya, 

Obadya,  Mikha, 

The  Fifth  Year  (1877) : 

13.  Paulinism  :  a  Contribution  to  the  History  of  Primitive  Christian 
15,       Theology,     By  Professor  0,  Piieiderer,  of  Jena.     Translated  by 

E.  Peters.     2  vols. 

14.  Keim's  History  of  Jesus  of  Nazara.    Translated  by  A.  Eansom. 

Vol.  III.  The  First  Preaching  ;  the  Works  of  Jesus ;  the 
Disciples ;  and  the  Apostolic  Mission. 


The  Sixtli  Year  (1878) : 
IG.  Baur's  (F.  C),  Church  History  of  the  First  Three  Centuries. 
Translated  from  the  thhcl   German   Edition.     Edited  hy  the 
Eev.  Allan  Menzies  (in  2  vols.).     Vol.  I. 

17.  Hausrath's   History    of   the   ISTew   Testament   Times.      The 

Time  of  Jesus.  Translated  hy  the  Eevds.  C.  T.  Poynting  and 
P.  Quenzer  (in  2  vols.).     Yol.  I. 

18.  Ewald's  Commentary  on  the  Prophets  of  the  Old  Testament. 

Translated  hy  the  Eev.  J.  Frederick  Smith.  Yol.  III.  Nahiiiu, 
Ssephanya,  Hahaqquq,  Zakharya  12 — 14,  Yeremya. 

The  Seventh  Year  (1879) : 

19.  Keim's  History  of  Jesus  of  Nazara.    Yol.  lY.   The  Galilean 

Storms  ;  Signs  of  tlie  approaching  Fall  ;  Eecognition  of  the 
Messiah. 

20.  Baur's  Church  History.    Yol.  II.  and  last. 

21.  Ewald's  Commentary  on  the  Prophets.     Yol.  lY.    Hezeqiel, 

Yesaya  xl. — Ixvi. 

The  Eighth  Year  (1880) : 

22.  Hausrath's  ISTew  Testament  Times.    The  Time  of  Jesus.    Yol. 

II.  and  last. 

23.  Ewald's  Commentary  on  the  Psalms.     Translated  by  the  Rev, 

24.  E.  Johnson,  M.A.     2  vols. 

The  Ninth  Year  (1881) : 

25.  Keim's  History  of  Jesus  of  ISTazara.     Yol.  Y.  The  INlessianic 

Progress  to  Jerusalem. 

26.  Ewald's   Commentary   on   the   Prophets,      ^'ol.  Y.  and  last. 

Haggai,  Zakharya,  Malaki,  Yona,  Barukh,  Daniel. 

27.  A  Protestant  Commentary  on  the  Books  of  the  New  Tes- 

tament :  with  General  and  Special  Introductions.  Edited  by 
Professors  P.  W.  Schmidt  and  F.  von  Holzendorff.  Translated 
from  the  Third  German  Edition  by  the  Rev.  F.  H.  Jones,  B.A. 
(in  3  vols.).     Yol.  I.  Matthew  to  Acts. 

The  Tenth  Year  (1882) : 

28.  Ewald's  Commentary  on  the  Book  of  Job.     Translated  by  the 

Eev.  J.  Frederick  Smith  (in  1  vol.). 

29.  Protestant  Commentary.      Yol.   II.    The   Pauline  Epistles   to 

Galatians. 

30.  Keim's  History  of  Jesus  of  Xazara.     Yol.  YI.  and  last. 

Beyond  these,  the  following  Works  are  in  the  hands  of  Trans- 
lators, and  will  be  included  in  the  next  years'  Subscriptions : 

Protestant  Commentary.     Yol.  III.  and  last. 

Schrader  (Professor  E.)  The  Old  Testament  and  Cuneiform 

Inscriptions  (in  2  vols.). 
Pfleiderer's  Philosophy  of  Eeligion.    Translated  by  the  Rev. 

Alexander  Stewart,  of  Dundee. 

WILLIAMS   &   NOEGATE. 

14,  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden, 
London,  W.G. 


SHORT    PROTESTANT   COMMENTARY 


ON    THE    BOOKS   OF    THE 


NEW  TESTAMENT. 

VOL.  III. 


SHORT  PROTESTANT  COMMENTARY 


ON   THE   BOOKS   OF   THE 


NEW  TESTAMENT: 


WITH   GENERAL  AND   SPECIAL  INTRODUCTIONS. 


EDITED   BY  ^ 

PKOF.  PAUL  WILHELM  SCHMIDT 

AND 

PKOF.  FRANZ  VON  HOLZENDORFF. 


Cranslatctr  from  X^st  CTfjtitr  eiiition  of  t^e  OBennaii 


BY 


FRANCIS  HENRY  JONES,  B.A. 
VOL.  in. 


WILLIAMS    AND    NORGATE, 

14,  HENRIETTA  STREET,  CO  VENT  GARDEN,  LONDON; 
And  20,  SOUTH  FREDERICK  STREET,  EDINBURGH. 

1884. 


LONDON  : 

PRINTED    BY    C.    GREEN    AND    SON, 

178,     STRAND. 


KOTE  BY  THE  TEANSLATOE. 


As  ill  the  preceding  Volumes,  the  text,  when  given  in  italics, 
is  that  of  the  English  Authorized  Version.  The  version  in 
inverted  commas  is  that  given  by  the  German  commentator, 
or,  when  it  simply  follows  the  English  version  without  the 
words  "  should  be "  or  "  read,"  it  is  that  of  Luther  accepted 
by  the  commentator  without  remark.  When  the  rendering  of 
the  English  translators  is  given  without  correction,  it  is  either 
identical  with  that  of  the  German  commentator,  or  else  is  already 
a  little  closer  to  the  original  Greek  without  differing  in  sense 
from  his  rendering.  I  have,  as  before,  added  a  few  notes,  in 
square  brackets,  chiefly  such  as  seemed  to  be  required  to  adapt 
a  German  Commentary  to  the  English  Version.  It  is  scarcely 
necessary  to  add  that  where  German  weights,  measures  or  coins 
are  mentioned,  they  are  reduced  in  all  three  volumes  to  the 
corresponding  English  standards. 

r.  H.  J. 


-^ofPr 


1885 


'2jog\cn\%^ 


CONTENTS. 


Introduction  to  the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians,  by  Prof.  Holtzmann       1 

Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians  „  .       7 

Introduction  to  the  Epistle  to  the  Philippians,  by  Prof.  Bruch     .     20 

Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Philippians  „  .24 

Introduction  to  the  Epistle  to  the  Colossians,  by  Prof.  Holtzmann     35 

Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Colossians  „  .     40 

Introduction  to  the  First  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians,  by  Prof. 

Paul  Wilhelm  Schmidt 48 

Commentary  on  the  First  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians        ,,  .     54 

Introduction  to  the  Second  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians      ,,  .     66 

Commentary  on  the  Second  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians    ,,  .72 

Introduction  to  the  Pastoral  Epistles,  by  Prof.  Pfleiderer     .  .77 

Commentary  on  the  First  Epistle  to  Timothy        „               .  .     87 

Commentary  on  the  Second  Epistle  to  Timothy    „               .  .   100 

Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  Titus      .         .       ,,               .  .   107 

Introduction  to  the  Epistle  to  Philemon,  by  Prof.  Holtzmann  .   Ill 

Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  Philemon                     „          .  .113 

Introduction  to  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  by  Prof.  Hilgenfeld  .  115 

Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews                    „  .129 

Introduction  to  the  Epistle  of  James,  by  Prof.  Bruch  .         .  .150 

Commentary  on  the  Epistle  of  James  „  ...  159 


Vlll 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Introduction  to  tlie  First  Epistle  of  Peter,  by  Prof.  Hilgenfeld  .   166 

Commentary  on  the  First  Epistle  of  Peter                     „  .  170 

Introduction  to  the  Second  Epistle  of  Peter                  „  .178 

Commentary  on  the  Second  Epistle  of  Peter                 „  .180 

Introduction  to  the  First  Epistle  of  John,  by  Dr.  Spath  .  .185 

Commentary  on  the  First  Epistle  of  John            „  .  .190 

Introduction  to  the  Second  Epistle  of  John         „  .  .210 

Commentary  on  the  Second  Epistle  of  John        „  .  .212 

Introduction  to  the  Third  Epistle  of  John            „  .  .215 

Commentary  on  the  Third  Epistle  of  John           „  .  .217 

Introduction  to  the  Epistle  of  Jude,  by  Prof.  Hilgenfeld  .  .219 

Commentary  on  the  Epistle  of  Jude                  „  .  .   221 

Introduction  to  the  Eevelation  of  John,  by  Dr.  Krenkel  .  .225 

Commentary  on  the  Eevelation  of  John               „  .  .  237 


THE    EPISTLE    TO   THE   EPHESIANS. 


There  is  a  marked  contrast  between  the  undoubtedly  genuine 
Epistles  of  Paul  which  have  preceded,  and  the  Epistle,  in  which 
very  general  views  predominate,  which  now  follows  under  the 
name  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians.  It  is  now  half  a  century 
since  its  authenticity  was  first  doubted,  and  the  opinion  that  it 
is  not  the  work  of  Paul  has  been  gaining  ground  ever  since.  We 
are  forced  to  this  conclusion  by  reasons  which  affect  the  whole 
Epistle ;  they  concern  its  form,  contents  and  purpose,  and  may 
be  conveniently  arranged  under  seven  heads. 

(1.)  The  address  of  the  Epistle  to  Ephcsiis  (i.  1).  Paul  had  long 
laboured  in  Ephesus,  first  among  the  Jews  and  afterwards  among 
the  Gentiles  (Acts  xviii.  19 — 21,  xix.  1 — xx.  1,  31),  and  we  have 
special  evidence  of  a  considerable  Jewish-Christian  element  in 
the  community  (Acts  xviii.  19,  20,  xix.  8,  13 — 16,  34;  Eev.  ii. 
1,  2,  6).  Our  Epistle,  on  the  other  hand,  assumes  a  purely  Gen- 
tile-Christian public  (ii.  1,  2, 11—13, 19,  iii.  1,  6,  iv.  17,  22,  v.  8) ; 
and  not  only  is  there  no  trace  whatever  of  any  personal  acquaint- 
ance of  the  writer  with  the  readers  of  the  Epistle,  but,  on  the 
contrary,  he  has  only  heard  of  them  (i.  15,  vi.  21)  and  they  of 
him  (iii.  2,  4).  There  are  no  greetings  either  from  or  to  indivi- 
duals. The  writer  and  his  readers  are  known  to  each  other  only 
by  report.  How  different  is  the  picture  of  the  relation  between 
Paul  and  the  Ephesians  which  we  form  from  Acts  xx.  17 — 38  ! 
On  these  grounds  Marcion  regarded  this  as  the  Epistle  to  the 
Laodiceans  referred  to  in  Col.  iv.  16  ;  and  two  learned  writers  of 
the  early  Church  (Origen  and  Basilius)  inform  us  that  the  words 

VOL.  III.  B 


I  THE  EPISTLE   TO    THE  EPHESIAXS. 

"at  Epliesus"  (i.  1)  were  not  found  in  tlie  old  Bibles,  and  tins 
may  in  fact  still  be  seen  in  the  two  oldest  and  best  MSS.  now 
extant  (the  Vatican  and  Sinaitic).  The  Epistle  then,  as  is  now 
almost  universally  allowed,  was  originally  intended  as  a  circular 
addressed  probably  to  the  group  of  communities  in  Asia  Minor 
which  are  mentioned  in  Eev.  i.  11.  Of  these,  Ephesus  was  the 
first  and  Laodicea  the  last.  To  the  latter  city  our  Epistle  is 
intended  to  come  (Col.  iv.  16),  and  thence  to  be  brought  at  last 
to  the  knowledge  of  another  community  for  which  it  was  not 
originally  intended.  This  general  purpose,  however,  removes 
the  Epistle  from  the  series  of  the  Epistles  of  Paul,  all  of  which 
have  some  definite  local  destination. 

(2.)  TJie  general  contents  of  the  Epistle.  The  Epistle  is  entirely 
devoted  to  the  promotion  of  the  unity  of  the  Christian  Church, 
on  the  ground  of  the  unity  of  God's  plan  of  salvation,  which 
embraces  the  whole  human  world,  and  which  is  contrasted  with 
the  previous  division  of  humanity  into  Jews  and  Gentiles  (ii. 
13 — 22,  iii.  6,  iv.  3 — 6).  This  is  not  the  language  of  one  who  is 
himself  engaged  in  the  strife  and  turmoil  of  the  labours  which 
attended  the  introduction  of  the  Gentiles  into  the  kingdom  of  God. 
It  is  natural,  however,  for  a  later  writer,  himself  also  a  Jew  by 
birth  (see  notes  on  i.  12,  13,  ii.  3),  at  a  time  when  the  harvest  of 
Paul's  vast  labours  is  beginning  to  ripen,  when  the  mission  to  the 
Gentiles  has  produced  its  fruits,  and  a  united  church  of  Jews  and 
Gentiles  is  to  take  the  place  of  the  former  division  of  the  nations, 
thus  to  look  back  to  Paul's  completed  work.  To  this  later  posi- 
tion is  due  also  the  writer's  comprehensive,  general  and  purely 
objective  treatment  of  his  subject  (ii.  20,  iii.  5,  iv.  11). 

(3.)  In  the  passages  just  referred  to,  the  writer  speaks  of  "  the 
apostles"  as  a  third  party  to  which  neither  his  hearers  nor  him- 
self belong,  and  in  language  which  is  inconceivable  in  the  mouth 
of  Paul  in  reference  to  a  class  of  which  he  himself  is  actually  a 
member.  Especially  do  we  detect  the  writer  (iii.  5)  when  he  puts 
himself  in  the  position  of  the  "  apostles,"  who  have  now  had  their 
ideas  extended  and  enlightened  by  a  divine  revelation  concerning 


THE  EPISTLE   TO    THE  EPIIESIANS.  3 

the  calling  of  the  Gentiles,  and  who  are  spoken  of  as  the  "  holy 
apostles,"  an  epithet  never  applied  to  them  elsewhere  in  the  New 
Testament,  and  here  used  altogether  in  the  later  ecclesiastical 
sense  of  the  word  "  saints."  This  explains  the  stress  laid  upon 
his  official  position,  recurring  again  in  what  are  called  the  Pas- 
toral Epistles,  and  here  so  often  repeated  without  any  sufficient 
motive  (iii.  1 — 3,  7,  iv.  1,  vi.  20).  It  also  explains  the  remark- 
able allusion  to  his  own  history  as  a  thing  of  the  past  (iii.  8),  and 
the  somewhat  forced  appeal  to  his  own  "  understanding,"  which 
his  readers  should  be  able  to  perceive  (iii.  4).  In  all  this  it  is 
not  Paul  who  speaks ;  but  a  later  disciple,  who  has  indeed  the 
spirit  of  Paul,  overpowered  by  the  historical  fact  of  the  gigantic 
results  of  his  labours  a  generation  after  his  death,  makes  him,  so 
to  speak,  a  witness  of  his  own  triumph,  putting  into  his  mouth 
this  utterance  of  victory  and  peace  addressed  to  his  communities. 
Such  literary  influence  after  his  death  was  in  harmony  with  the 
literary  labours  of  Paul  during  his  life.  He  was  the  first  apostle 
who  possessed  it.     James,  Peter  and  John,  followed. 

(4.)  Intimate  as  is  the  writer's  acquaintance  with  the  genuine 
Pauline  Epistles,  as  we  shall  show  in  our  notes  by  continual 
references  to  them,  he  is  nevertheless  very  far  from  having  fol- 
lowed the  Pauline  model  accurately  in  language  and  stTjle.  Even 
those  commentators  who  attempt  to  rescue  the  authenticity  of 
the  Epistle  allow  that  its  style  perplexes  them  by  its  very  mani- 
fest divergence  from  that  of  the  four  preceding  Epistles.  There 
is  a  freedom  and  flow  of  words,  at  times  almost  a  bombastic  tone, 
a  curious  abundance,  and  indeed  cumulation,  of  rhetorical  phrases, 
a  style  which  proceeds  in  involved  sentences,  each  being  inter- 
linked with  the  preceding,  while  the  connection  is  yet  frequently 
interrupted  by  parentheses.  Over  and  above  all  this,  we  find  a 
number  of  peculiar  expressions  and  terms,  words  and  figures, 
which  Paul  does  not  employ  elsewhere.  For  example,  God  is 
called  "the  Father  of  glory"  (i.  17),  "who  hath  made  all  things  ' 
(iii.  9),  "of  whom  everything  that  hath  a  father  bears  its  name" 
(iii.  15). 

B.2 


4  THE  EPISTLE   TO    THE  EPHESIANS. 

(5.)  Such  terms  as  those  just  mentioned  are  plainly  connected 
with  the  peculiar  world  of  ideas  and  conceptions  of  the  Epistle 
generally.  Among  these  peculiar  ideas  must  be  reckoned  not 
merely  details  such  as  the  doctrine  of  the  residence  of  evil  spirits 
in  the  air  (ii.  2,  vi.  12),  or  a  triumph  over  them  in  the  lower 
world  (iv.  8 — 10),  but  the  fundamental  idea  of  the  Epistle  itself, 
in  which  Christianity  appears  as  a  mystery  concealed  in  God 
from  eternity,  raised  infinitely  above  everything  else,  and  first 
made  known  to  humanity  at  a  definite  point  in  its  development 
by  means  of  a  supernatural  revelation  (see  notes  on  i.  9,  iii.  5,  9, 
V.  32).  And  the  chief  subject  of  this  mystery,  taking  even  the 
angels  by  surprise  (iii.  10),  is  made  to  be  the  union  of  the  human 
race,  hitherto  divided,  in  the  one  salvation  which  is  the  same  for 
all  (see  notes  on  i.  10,  iii.  6).  Hence,  while  the  Pauline  doctrine 
of  reconciliation  is  softened  down  in  favour  of  good  works  (see 
note  on  ii.  10),  and  undergoes  a  curious  development  in  the 
interests  of  our  author's  main  principle  (see  note  on  ii.  15),  a  way 
is  prepared  for  a  system  in  harmony  with  the  average  current 
ideas  of  the  Gentile  church  (see  note  on  iv.  14),  and  so  Christianity 
becomes  itself  a.  subject  of  study  and  knowledge. 

(6.)  What  has  been  said  under  the  last  head  explains  the  fre- 
quent mention  of  "all  wisdom  and  prudence,"  of  "making  known" 
and  "revealing,"  of  "hearing"  and  "learning,"  "knowledge"  and 
"mystery."  And  all  this  points  to  the  spiritual  requirements 
and  interests  of  an  age  that  had  gone  beyond  primitive  Chris- 
tianity, requirements  and  interests  plainly  connected  with  the 
great  movements  to  which  the  so-called  Gnosis  gave  rise  (see 
Vol.  I.  pp.  18,  197).  In  fact,  the  Epistles  with  which  we  are 
now  concerned  distinctly  mark  the  point  at  which  the  Pauline 
school  was  placed  in  a  position  to  come  to  a  clear  understanding 
as  to  its  points  of  agreement  and  disagreement  with  the  rising 
gnosis  (see  note  on  iii.  19).  Hence  the  Christology  of  this  Epistle 
also  goes  beyond  the  Pauline  limits.  In  the  place  of  the  "  second 
Adam"  who  exists  for  the  sake  of  the  human  world,  it  puts  a 
being  existing  before  the  world,  who  is  at  the  same  time  the 


THE  EPISTLE   TO    THE  EPHESIANS.  5 

central  point  and  the  end  of  the  whole  created  world,  and  in  whom 
therefore  the  earthly  and  the  heavenly  spheres  alike  first  reach 
an  articulate  yet  harmonious  unity  (see  note  on  i.  10).  With 
this  idea  of  Christ  as  the  central  point  of  the  universe  is  espe- 
cially connected  the  expression  "  fulness,"  which  comes  to  be  so 
curiously  applied  in  this  EjDistle  (see  notes  on  i.  23,  iii.  19,  iv. 
10, 13).  This  word  plays  an  important  part  among  the  Gnostics, 
by  whom  it  is  used  to  denote  the  ascending  series  of  divine 
beings  which  taken  together  forms  the  complete  conception  of 
God.  There  are  other  expressions  wliich  are  likewise  Gnostic, 
such  as  "ceons"  (see  notes  on  ii.  7,  iii.  11),  "generations"  (see 
notes  on  iii.  5,  21),  "lords  of  the  world"  (see  note  on  vi.  12),  &c. 

(7.)  It  is  only  when  we  look  at  the  Epistle  from  this  point  of 
view  that  a  definite  'purpose  appears  in  it.  It  is  difficult  to  show 
what  object  Paul  could  have  had  in  sending  a  missive  of  this 
kind  to  the  community  at  Epliesus  or  anywliere  else ;  but  it  is 
very  easy  to  understand  how  the  Epistle  might  spring  from  the 
necessities  of  a  later  age,  and  a  longing  to  hear  the  great  herald 
and  advocate  of  the  cause  of  Christ  speak  in  this  later  age  upon 
the  new  problems  whicli  in  some  cases  had  presented  themselves 
in  so  startling  a  form.  This,  then,  is  the  source  of  our  Epistle, 
which  is  addressed  in  the  first  instance  to  the  Gentile  Christians 
in  a  circle  of  Christian  communities  in  Asia  Minor,  and  then  to 
the  great  multitude  of  Gentiles  which  was  gradually  filling  tlie 
church  generally.  Its  object  was  partly  to  instruct  them  in  the 
principles  of  their  new  position  in  the  kingdom  of  God,  and 
partly  to  give  them,  in  clear,  strong  outline,  a  decree  which  should 
meet  the  requirements  of  their  vacillating  conduct.  To  the  first 
part  of  this  double  task  the  first  three  chapters  are  devoted,  and 
to  the  second  part  the  last  three.  The  division  is  marked  by 
the  Epistle  itself,  by  means  of  the  doxology  (iii.  20,  21)  which 
stands  between  the  didactic  and  the  hortatory  portions. 

Thus,  then,  we  see  that  the  writing  now  before  us  presents  to 
us  in  several  respects  a  new  phenomenon  when  compared  with 
the  Pauline  Epistles  which  we  have  previously  considered.    But 


6  THE  EPISTLE  TO    THE  EPHESIANS. 

it  is  not  only  these  latter  the  existence  of  which  is  assumed  in 
the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians,  but  also  a  whole  series  of  other 
New-Testame7it  loritinys  with  which  it  is  related  in  a  most  strik- 
ing manner,  especially  the  Eevelation  (comp.  iii.  5  with  Eev. 
X.  7),  the  Gospel  according  to  Matthew  (comp.  iv.  29  with  Matt, 
xii.  36,  XV.  11,  18),  the  Gospel  according  to  Luke  (comp.  vi.  18 
with  Luke  xxi.  36),  the  Book  of  Acts  (comp.  i.  7,  14,  iv.  11,  v.  25, 
with  Acts  XX.  28),  and  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  (comp.  i.  7, 
V.  26,  with  Heb.  ix.  12  sqq.,  xiii.  12). 

Practical  points  of  contact  between  the  Epistle  to  the  Ephe- 
sians and  various  other  books,  as,  for  example,  the  Epistles  to 
Timothy  and  Titus,  and  the  Johannine  and  Petrine  writings,  are 
probably  to  be  explained  by  the  fact  that  they  are  nearly  con- 
temporaneous with  one  another  (see  Vol,  I.  p.  19). 

But,  again,  we  must  take  an  entirely  independent  explanation 
of  the  altogether  unique  relation  which  exists  between  this 
Epistle  and  the  E-pisth  to  the  Colossians.  It  is  impossible  to 
suppose  that  Paul  can  have  copied  himself  to  such  an  extent, 
and  often  even  to  the  very  smallest  details  of  expression.  Eeserv- 
ing,  then,  the  fuller  discussion  of  this  relation  between  the  two 
for  the  Introduction  to  the  Epistle  to  the  Colossians,  we  must 
be  content  at  present  to  point  out  the  parallel  and  the  related 
passages  in  our  notes.  Whoever  takes  the  trouble  to  compare 
these  passages  with  one  another,  will  see  at  once  that  here  we 
are  not  concerned  simply  with  a  general  connection  between  the 
two  Epistles,  but  with  a  mutual  interaction  of  arguments  and 
ideas  which  are  at  the  same  time  closely  connected  with  one 
another  and  essentially  distinct  from  the  Pauline  domain,  in 
spite  of  their  various  points  of  contact  with  the  latter. 


THE  EPISTLE  TO  THE  EPHESIANS. 


Chapter  i. 
[1.  At  Ephems  slioiild  be  omitted.     See  pp.  1  sq.] 

i.  3—14 
A  diffuse  doxology,  un-Pauline  in  form,  impressing  upon  the 
readers  that  their  position  as  Christians  is  not  a  matter  of  their 
own  choice  and  decision,  but  the  realization  of  a  decree  of  God 
which  was  made  before  the  ages  (ver.  4)  and  has  its  goal  in  the 
end  of  all  history  (ver.  10).  Each  of  the  three  divisions  of  this 
section  ends  with  the  phrase,  "  to  the  praise  of  his  glory."  We 
pass  in  these  three  stages  from  the  predestination  by  God  the 
Father  (3 — 6),  through  the  historical  redemption  in  the  Son 
(G — 12),  to  the  sealing  by  the  Spirit  (13,  14). 

3.  After  1  Cor.  i.  5 ;  comp.  Col.  i.  5. 

4.  Comp.  Col.  i.  22. — In  love:  These  words  should  probably 
be  taken  with  the  next  verse,  "  And  having  predestinated  us  iu 
love." 

5.  After  Eom.  viii.  29 ;  Gal.  iv.  5. 

6.  Com]p.  Col.  i.  13. —  Wherein,  &c.,  should  be  "wherewith  he 
hath  favoured  us  in  the  beloved  one." 

7  =  Col.  i.  14,  20.     After  Eom.  iii.  24,  25,  xi.  26,  27. 

8.  After  2  Cor.  ix.  8 ;  comp.  Col.  i.  9. — AH  wisdom  and  frii- 
dence :  which  he  has  imparted  to  us  as  necessary  for  the  further- 
ance of  our  salvation. 

9,  10.  Which  he,  &c.,  should  be  "  which  he  determined  in 
himself  for  the  disposition  of  the  fulness  of  the  times,  that  he 
might  gather  together,"  &c, 

9.  After  Eom.  viii.  28,  ix.  11 ;  comp.  Col.  i.  26,  27.— The 
■svill  of  God  was  gracious  from  all  eternity ;  but  to  the  world,  in 
accordance  with  a  definite  plan  determined  by  God,  it  did  not 
appear  until  the  "fulness  of  the  times"  described  in  ver.  10. 
This  is  the  conception  of  the  "revelation"  in  our  Epistle. 


8  EPEESIANS.  [i.  10—23 

10.  Literally,  both  here  and  in  iii.  9  [see  note  on  iii.  9],  it  is 
not  exactly  a  "dispensation"  that  the  writer  sj)eaks  of,  but  an 
"  economy,"  i.  e.  an  administration  or  disposition  of  affairs.  This 
is  the  name  that  he  gives  to  the  divine  plan  of  salvation  which 
was  to  be  realized  in  the  course  of  successive  "  times,"  so  that  it 
is  only  with  the  "fulness  of  times"  (after  Gal.  iv.  4)  that  the 
appointed  moment  arrives,  for  which  all  creation  was  ordained, 
which  finds  its  point  of  union  and  its  goal  in  Christ.  Comp. 
Col.  i.  IG,  17,  19,  20. 

11.  Comp.  Col.  i.  9,  12. 

12.  13.  After  Gal.  iii.  14 ;  2  Cor.  i.  22 ;  comp.  Col.  i.  5.  In 
these  verses  the  contrast  between  the  Jewish  Christians  ("we") 
and  the  Gentile  Christians  ("ye")  is  very  distinct. —  Who  Jirst 
trusted :  "  who  hoped  before." 

14.  After  2  Cor.  i.  22,  v.  5 ;  Eom.  viii.  16,  17,  23. 

i.  15—23. 

Thanksgiving  which  passes  into  a  petition  that  God  may 
cause  the  Gentile  Christians  here  addressed  to  understand  how 
great  a  thing  their  Christian  position  is,  and  on  whom  they  may 
rely  in  view  of  the  manifestation  of  the  power  of  God,  which  is 
the  same  in  them  as  in  the  Christ  who  has  been  raised  from  the 
dead  and  exalted  by  God.  Another  long-winded  sentence,  espe- 
cially as  it  properly  includes  the  first  part  of  the  following 
chapter  also,  as  far  as  the  end  of  ver.  10, 

15— 17  =  Col.  i.  3,4,  9. 

18.  After  2  Cor.  iv.  6;  comp.  Col.  i.  9,  12,  27.— It  is  well  to 
have  some  sense  of  the  blessing  of  the  future  and  of  the  present. 

19.  Comp.  Col.  i.  11,  ii.  12. — Appeal  to  their  own  experience 
as  a  test  of  the  greatness  of  the  divine  energy. 

20—23.  After  1  Cor.  xv.  20,  23—28  ;  comp.  Col.  i.  16—19, 
ii.  9,  10. 

20.  Comp.  Col.  ii.  12. 

21.  Comp.  note  on  Eom.  viii.  38. 

22.  Ilis  relation  to  the  whole  creation  is  ^  the  foundation  of 
his  special  relation  to  the  church,  which  corresponds  to  the  rela- 
tion of  the  head  to  the  members  of  the  body. 

23.  Here,  as  in  ver.  10,  we  obtain  a  glimpse  of  the  writer's 
world  of  ideas.  The  community  is  "  his  bod)/,"  according  to  the 
comparison  further  carried  out  afterwards  (v,  23 — 28),  in  which 


i.  23— ii.  4]  EPHESIANS.  9 

especially  the  women  appear  as  the  bodies  of  the  men  (v.  28),  and 
the  marriage-bond  as  a  mysterious  image  of  the  relation  of  Christ 
to  the  church  (see  note  on  v.  32).  As  the  man  is  made  complete 
by  woman,  so  the  church,  being  filled  by  Christ,  makes  him 
complete  in  its  turn,  and  hence  is  the  fulness  of  him  that  filldh 
all  in  all,  inasmuch  as  the  church  represents  that  sphere  of  crea- 
tion which  is  now  filled  with  Christ,  and  from  which  his  filling 
influence  spreads  in  ever-widening  circles,  until,  in  due  corre- 
spondence with  his  own  position  as  the  centre  of  the  universe, 
it  embraces  the  universe  itself. 

ii.  1—10. 

This  passage  is  closely  connected  with  i.  15 — 23,  inasmuch  as 
■what  God  has  done  to  us  (1 — 6)  is  now  compared  with  what  He 
has  done  to  Christ  (i.  20 — 23).  Christianity  is  explained  from 
the  moral  point  of  view  to  be  a  resurrection  from  the  death  of 
sin,  similar  to  the  resurrection  of  Christ  and  founded  in  it,  brought 
about  by  a  grand  act  of  divine  power  and  grace  (1 — 6).  The 
writer  then  turns  back  (ver.  7)  to  his  starting-point  (i.  19) ;  while 
in  the  verses  that  follow  (8 — 10)  we  have  only  an  appendix 
occasioned  by  his  parenthetical  exclamation  in  ver.  5. 

l  =  Col.  i.  21,  ii.  13. — "And  you  also,  when  ye  were  dead  in 
your  trespasses  and  sins,  wherein,"  &c. 

2.  That  the  atmosphere  was  full  of  evil  spirits  and  was  tlie 
peculiar  domain  of  Satan,  was  an  idea  common  to  Jewish  and 
Greek  teachers  of  the  time,  as  may  be  proved  by  many  passages 
in  their  writings.     Comp.  Col.  iii.  6. 

3.  Comp.  Col.  i.  13,  21,  iii.  7. — Conversation:  "conduct." — 
The  mind  should  be  "  our  thoughts,"  i.  e.  ideas  and  designs  M'hich 
have  their  source  in  the  flesh. — "  Children  [not  the  children]  of 
wrath:"  subject  to  the  Divine  wrath.  After  Eom.  i.  18. — JBi/ 
nature:  after  Gal.  ii.  15.  Here,  however,  the  writer  goes  beyond 
the  passage  in  Galatians,  and  maintains  that  even  "we"  (who 
are  Jews  by  birth)  are  sinners  by  nature,  i.  e.  apart  from  the  cove- 
nant, of  which  circumcision,  which  was  something  added  to  the 
natural  state,  was  a  pledge,  and  so  are  in  the  same  position  as 
"you"  (who  are  Gentiles  by  birth). 

4.  Here  the  thought  of  ver.  1,  which  has  been  almost  lost,  is 
taken  up  again. 


10  EPHESIANS.  [ii.  5—15 

5  =  Col.  ii.  13.  It  is  not  until  we  reach  this  verse  that  we  see 
the  real  meaning  of  ver.  1, 

6.  After  Eom.  vi.  6—11;  Phil.  iii.  20 ;  comp.  Col.  ii.  12.— Toge- 
ther :  "  together  with  him." 

7.  In  the  ages  to  come :  i. e.  in  all  future  time.  The  future  is 
divided,  according  to  the  writer's  ideas,  into  a  series  of  "times" 
or  "ages"  (aeons). 

8.  After  Eom.  iii.  24,  28. 

9.  After  1  Cor.  i.  29. 

10.  After  2  Cor.  v.  17 ;  Gal.  vi.  15 ;  comp.  Col.  i.  10,  21.— It 
should  be  noticed  how  the  Pauline  doctrine  of  faith,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  ideas  of  post-Pauline  Gentile  Christianity,  has  here 
been  displaced  by  the  idea  of  "  good  works,"  which  are  expressly 
regarded  as  being  incorporated  in  the  predestination  and  purpose 
of  creation  in  order  that  in  the  course  of  time  they  might  be 
made  manifest  in  individual  Christians, 

ii.  11—22. 
The  Gentile  Christians  are  reminded  that  they  were  formerly 
alien  to  the  commonwealth  of  historical  salvation,  and  that  they 
owe  their  admission  entirely  to  the  death  of  Christ  upon  the 
cross,  which  broke  down  the  partition-wall  between  Israel  and 
the  nations  of  the  world. 

11.  After  Eom.  ii.  26—29;  1  Cor.  xii.  2;  comp.  Col.  ii.  11, 
13. — Are  called:  "were  called"  [the  Greek  may  mean  either]. 

12  =  Col.  i.  21.  After  Eom.  ix.  4;  Gal  iv.  24:.— Promise :  "the 
promise." 

13  =  Col.  i.  21,  22. 

14.  Comp.  Col.  i.  20. — The  Law  is  called  a  ivall,  inasmuch  as 
it  enclosed  the  Jewish  nation  and  separated  it  from  the  rest  of 
the  world. 

15  =  Col.  ii.  14,  20. — The  separation  led  to  a  thorough  and 
unyielding  hatred  of  the  remaining  nations,  which  they  again 
did  not  hesitate  to  return  (see  note  on  Matt.  v.  43),  and  hence 
the  Law  is  further  called  enmity,  i.e.  an  occasion  of  enmity. — 
The  most  peculiar  and  most  pregnant  of  all  the  ideas  which 
our  author  deals  with  is  that  Christ,  by  his  reconciling  death, 
has  done  away  with  the  scrupulous  customs  of  the  Jews  which 
were  so  hateful  to  the  Gentiles,  and  so,  by  removing  the  cause 


ii.  15 — iii.  4]  EPHESIANS.        '  11 

of  enmity,  has  put  an  end  to  the  enmity  itself.  This  idea  is 
based  upon  the  Pauline  doctrine  of  the  Law  and  of  reconciliation, 
especially  Gal.  iii.  13. 

16  =  Col.  i.  20 — 22. — In  one  hocly :  comp.  iv.  4,  Col.  iii.  15. — 
TJicrehy :  "through  [lit.  in]  himself"  [others  translate  "thereon" 
(i.e.  on  the  cross)]. 

17.  Comp.  Col.  i.  20.     From  Is.  Ivii.  19. 

18.  After  Eom.  v.  2. 

19.  Foreigners :  settlers  residing  in  a  state  without  possessing 
the  rights  of  citizens. 

20—22.  After  1  Cor.  iii.  9—11,  16,  17,  vi.  19;  2  Cor.  vi.  16 ; 
comp.  Col.  ii.  7. 

20.  Prophets:  i.e.  Christian  prophets,  as  in  1  Cor.  xii.  10; 
Acts  xi.  17. — Chief  corner-stone :  from  Matt.  xxi.  42. 

22.  Through  the  Sinrit :  "  in  the  Spirit"  [so  lit.]. 

iii.  1—19. 
The  exhortations  of  chap,  ii.,  upon  which  (according  to  iii.  3,  4) 
the  whole  Epistle  turns,  are  confirmed  by  reference  to  Paul  him- 
self, now  a  prisoner,  to  whom  the  Gentiles  are  peculiarly  indebted 
for  their  position  as  Christians,  inasmuch  as  he  is  the  bearer  and 
herald  of  the  mystery  of  the  reception  of  the  Gentiles  into  the 
divine  historical  plan  of  salvation,  a  mystery  so  important  in  its 
bearings  on  the  human  world  and  the  higher  realm  of  spirits  alike. 
This  section  consists  of  two  sentences  (vv.  1 — 7  and  vv.  8 — 12), 
The  second,  however,  is  only  a  repetition  of  an  idea  that  has 
already  been  laid  down  four  times  in  the  first  (vv.  2,  3,  5,  7),  and 
ver.  14  recurs  again  directly  to  the  incomplete  sentence  of  ver.  1. 

1  =  Col.  i.  23  sq. — The  prisoner  of  Jesus  Christ :  the  prisoner 
who  belongs  to  Jesus ;  comp.  iv.  1.  The  Epistle  is  supposed 
to  be  written  from  the  same  imprisonment  that  is  spoken  of  in 
Philem.  1  and  9. 

2  =  Col.  i.  25.  After  Gal.  i.  13 — 16,  ii.  7,  8, — [Dispensation: 
better,  "stewardship;"  same  word  as  in  i.  10,  iii.  9  (see  notes) ; 
here  used  of  the  administration  of  the  grace  of  God  entrusted  to 
the  apostle.] 

3.  After  Gal.  i.  12,  ii.  2  ;  1  Cor.  ii.  1  sqq.;  comp.  Eom.  xvi.  25  ; 
Col.  i.  26. — Afore:  i.e.  in  chap.  ii. 

4.  After  2  Cor.  xi.  5,  6. — On  this  and  the  preceding  verses 


12  EPHESIANS,  [iii.  4 — 14 

see  pp.  2  sq.  "We  have  liere  a  somewhat  awkward  attempt  on 
the  part  of  the  writer  to  maintain  Paul's  consciousness  of  apos- 
tolic authority  against  his  readers.  In  this  attempt  he  entirely 
loses  the  connection  with  ver.  1. 

5  =  Col.  i.  26. — In  other  ages:  lit.  "in  other  generations."  In 
the  original,  these  "  other  generations"  appear  partly  as  personal 
recipients  of  knowledge,  but  partly  as  simply  a  definition  of  the 
time,  and  hence  the  expression  is  supplemented  by  the  words, 
the  sons  of  men. — As  it  is  now  revealed :  This  is  a  favourite  idea 
with  the  writer,  and  springs  from  1  Cor.  ii.  7,  9,  10 ;  Eev.  x.  7. 

6.  The  substance  of  the  "mystery;"  after  Gal.  iii.  29;  Kora. 
iv.  12—16. 

7  =  Col.  i.  25,  29. 

8.  After  1  Cor.  xv.  9, 10  ;  Gal  i.  16  ;  Eom.  ix.  23,  xi.  S3.— Less 
than  the  least :  "the  very  least."    [Is  given  should  be  "  was  given."] 

9  =  Col.  iii.  3.  After  1  Cor.  ii.  1,  7. — Fellowship  should  be 
"  administration,"  or  "  disposition ;"  see  note  on  i.  10. — From  the 
hcginning  of  the  world:  lit.  "from  the  feons;"  see  note  on  ii.  7. 
According  to  our  writer,  as  also  according  to  1  Pet.  i.  12 ;  2  Pet. 
i.  20  sq.,  even  the  prophets  of  the  Old  Testament  had  themselves 
no  objective  consciousness  of  the  subject  of  their  own  prophecies; 
comp.  Col.  i.  26 — 28,  ii.  3. — The  concluding  words,  "through 
Jesus  Christ,"  are  probably  a  later  addition. 

10.  By  the  church :  Even  the  celestial  powers  mentioned  in 
i.  21  first  learn  the  substance  of  the  divine  mystery  "from  the 
community"  (lit.  "through  the  community");  that  is  to  say, 
they  are  instructed  in  it  by  the  fact  of  the  existence  of  a  uni- 
versal church  formed  of  Jews  and  Gentiles;  comp.  Col.  ii.  15. 
We  find  some  similar  ideas  in  1  Pet.  i.  12. 

11.  The  eternal  purpose :  This  is  the  meaning  of  the  writer's 
words,  Avhich  are  literally,  "  The  purpose  of  the  a3ons."  It  was 
so  ordained  in  God's  eternal  scheme  of  the  universe. 

12.  After  Eom.  v,  2. — Faith  of  him :  "  faith  in  him." 

13.  Wherefore:  Because  that  which  has  been  described  in 
vv.  8 — 12  was  brought  about  through  him.  After  2  Cor.  iv.  16, 
vii.  4 ;  comp.  Col.  i.  24.  It  is  the  glory  of  the  Gentile  Chris- 
tians before  God  and  man,  that  such  a  man  as  Paul  suffers  for 
them. 

14.  After  Eom.  xi.  4,  xiv.  11. — For  this  cause:  repeated  from 


iii.  14— i  v.]  EPHESIANS.  13 

ver.  1  in  order  to  catch  up  the  thread  again,  which  was  dropped 
in  that  verse. — Here  also  (as  in  ver.  9)  the  words,  of  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,  are  not  found  in  the  oldest  MSS. 

15.  After  1  Cor.  viii.  5  sq. — This  verse  is  difficult  to  translate 
on  account  of  the  play  upon  words  in  the  Greek.  "  The  Father 
[Greek,  paterl  from  whom  every  tribe  [Greek,  patrici]  in  heaven 
and  earth  is  named."  [The  word  patria  is  itself  a  difficult  one 
to  render  satisfactorily  here  by  any  one  English  word.  It  is 
used  in  the  various  senses  of  family,  tribe  and  nation,  and  here 
refers  probably  to  the  various  nations  of  the  earth  and  tribes  or 
races  of  celestial  beings,  each  being  called  a  i^atria,  from  the  one 
pater  of  all.] 

16.  After  Eom.  ix.  23,  vii.  22 ;  2  Cor.  iv.  16 ;  comp.  Col.  i.  11. 

17.  Comp.  Col.  i.  23. 

18.  Comp.  Col.  ii.  2,  7. — Tlie  hreadth,  &c. :  It  is  not  said  what 
breadth,  &c.,  is  meant,  as  what  is  intended  is  the  loftiest  breadth, 
&c.,  conceivable,  inasmuch  as  the  contents  of  the  divine  mystery 
which  are  thus  described  are  infinite. 

19.  After  1  Cor.  ii.  14,  viii.  1,  xiii.  2,  8 ;  Phil.  iv.  7 ;  comp. 
Col.  ii.  3,  10. — The  love  of  Christ  which  piasscth  hnoidedge:  i.e. 
that  ye  may  know  that  Christ's  love  surpasseth  all  knowledge. 
It  is  important  to  observe  in  regard  to  the  purpose  of  the  Epistle, 
which  is  the  "  knowledge"  (of  Christ),  that  one  should  also  be 
required  to  "know"  how  the  value  of  knowledge  sinks  before 
the  love  of  Christ. —  With  all  the  fulness  of  God  should  be  "  unto 
the  whole  fulness  of  God."  As  God  (according  to  Col.  i.  19, 
ii.  9)  entirely  fills  Christ,  so,  Christ  filling  the  believing  com- 
munity (i.  23),  this  same  fulness  of  God  indirectly  dwells  in  it 
also. 

iii.  20,  21. 

The  discourse  having  returned  (ver.  19)  to  its  starting-point 
(i.  17 — 19),  a  conclusion  now  follows  to  the  same  effect  as  the 
opening  doxology  (i.  3 — 14).     Comp.  Col.  i.  29. 

21.  By  Christ  Jesus:  "in  Christ  Jesus." — Throughout  all  ages, 
world  tvithout  end:  lit.  "to  all  generations  of  the  teon  of  the 
aeons." 

iv.  1—16. 

The  nature  of  the  new  communion  into  which  the  readers 
have  passed  requires  loving   conduct  of  individuals   towards 


14  EPEESIANS.  [iv.  1 — 13 

each  other,  -worthy  of  the  grand  unity  of  the  body  of  Christ,  and 
preserving  it  (1 — 6).  And  it  further  requires  a  striving  after 
Christian  perfection,  which  shall  tend  to  the  good  of  the  whole 
by  the  mutual  co-operation  of  all  (7 — 16). 

1  =  Col.  i.  10.  After  1  Thess.  ii.  12  ;  Eom.  xii.  l.—Of  the  Lord : 
"in  the  Lord"  [so  lit.]. 

2  =  Col.  iii.  12,  13. 

3  =  Col.  iii.  14.     After  Eom.  xiii.  10. 

4  =  Col.  iii.  15.     After  1  Cor.  x.  17,  xii.  4;  Eom.  xii.  5. 

5.  After  1  Cor.  i.  13,  viii.  6,  xii.  5. 

6.  After  1  Cor.  viii.  6,  xii.  6;  Eom.  iii.  30. — \_You:  not  found 
in  the  best  MSS.] 

7.  After  Eom.  xii.  3— 6 ;  1  Cor.  xii.  7—11. 

8.  Psalm  Ixviii.  19,  from  the  Greek  version.  The  writer,  how- 
ever, departs  from  his  authority,  inasmuch  as  both  Greek  and 
Hebrew  speak  of  the  receipt  of  gifts,  while  here  M^e  have,  "gave 
gifts."  It  was  only  by  means  of  such  an  alteration  that  a  passage 
in  the  Old  Testament  describing  the  victorious  return  of  the  God 
of  the  covenant  to  Zion,  could  be  applied  to  the  ascension  of 
Christ  and  the  distribution  of  the  various  divine  gifts. 

9.  Interpretation  of  the  passage  just  quoted  from  the  Psalms. 
Ascent  presupposes  descent.  A  descent  into  the  loioer  pao^ts  of 
the  earth  corresponds  with  the  ascent  above  all  heavens  (ver.  10). 
Probably  what  is  meant  is  the  so-called  "descent  into  hell," 
which  appears  again  in  1  Pet.  iii.  19. 

10.  That  he  might  fill  all  things :  see  note  on  i.  23. — The  writer 
is  thinking  of  "those  in  heaven  and  on  earth  and  under  the 
earth"  (Phil.  ii.  10),  a  fantastic  development  of  his  favourite  idea 
of  Christ  as  the  central  point  of  the  universe. 

11.  After  1  Cor.  xii.  28 ;  Eom.  xii.  6 — 8. — [Gave  some,  apostles, 
&c.:  i.e.  appointed  some  to  be  apostles,  &c.] — Prophets:  see  note 
on  ii.  20. — Evangelists:  see  Acts  xxi.  8. — Pastors:  as  in  Acts 
XX.  28  [where  the  writer  speaks  of  the  flock,  though  he  uses  the 
word  "overseer,"  not  "shepherd"  as  here]. 

12.  After  1  Cor.  xiv.  26;  2  Cor.  xii.  19. — Ministry:  i.e.  "ser- 
vice." 

13.  \_In  the  unity  should  be  "  into  the  unity."] — Stature  should 
be  "  age." — The  growth  of  the  individual  Christians  to  tlie  mea- 
sure of  the  age  of  the  fulness  of  Christ,  i.e.  of  the  church  (i.  23), 


iv.  13 — 25]  EPHESIANS.  15 

and  so  the  gradual  approach  of  the  actual  perfecting  of  the  indi- 
vidual members  to  the  ideal  perfection  of  the  whole,  is  only 
another  aspect  of  the  being  "  filled  unto  the  whole  fulness  of 
God"  described  in  iii.  19. 

14.  Comp.  Col.  ii.  8.  The  church  is  here  on  the  very  point 
of  delivering  itself  and  its  doctrine,  which  was  then  in  accordance 
with  average  current  ideas,  from  the  seething  turmoil  of  factions 
and  parties. 

15.  The  head:  see  note  on  i.  22. 

16  =  Col.  ii.  19;  corap.  Col.  ii.  2.  After  Eom.  xii.  5;  1  Cor. 
xii.  12.  Literally  translated,  this  verse  would  read,  "  From  whom 
the  whole  body  fitly  joined  together,  and  knit  together  through 
every  contact  of  the  assistance,  according  to  the  working  in  the 
measure  of  each  several  part,  completes  the  growth  of  the  body 
unto  the  edifying  of  itself  in  love."  The  illustration  is  of  a  con- 
nected whole  consisting  of  various  members.  The  parts,  which 
are  calculated  and  adapted  for  one  another,  mutually  hold  out  a 
helping  hand  to  one  another  as  it  were ;  while  the  whole  draws 
from  the  head  a  life  which  passes  from  one  point  of  contact  to 
another,  so  that  each  several  member  is  proportionately  nourished 
and  developed,  and  at  the  same  time  the  whole  flourishes  and 
progresses  towards  a  more  and  more  complete  maturity. 

iv.  17—24 

The  present  conduct  of  the  Gentile  Christians  must  be  the 
very  opposite  to  their  former  heathen  conduct.  This  new  series 
of  exhortations  is  introduced  (17 — 19)  by  a  sketch  of  the  moral 
state  of  the  Gentile  world,  after  Eom.  i.  21,  22,  24 

17.  Comp.  Col.  ii.  4,  6. 

18.  Comp.  Col.  i.  21. 
19  =  Col.  iii.  5. 

20.  Comp.  Col.  ii.  6. 

21.  Comp.  Col.  ii.  I.—By  him :  "  in  him." 

22— 24  =  Col.  iii.  9—11.  After  Eom.  vi.  4,  6,  xii.  2,  xiii.  12, 
14;  1  Cor.  xv.  53,  54;  2  Cor.  iv.  16,  v.  17,  xi.  3;  Gal.  iii.  27, 
vi.  15 ;  1  Thess.  v.  8. 

22.  Conversation:  i.e.  "conduct." 

iv.  25— V.  20. 
After  the  general  exhortation,  the  writer  descends  to  individual 
virtues  and  vices,  especially  forbidding  from  first  to  last  all  con- 


16  EPHESIANS.  [iv.  25— V.  8 

tact  with  heathen  abominations  and  requiring  a  strict  watch 
upon  self.  We  have  here  a  kind  of  Christian  table  of  ten  com- 
mandments.    The  first  table  (vv.  25 — 31)  contains  about  five. 

iv.  25—32.  The  first  table. 

25.  Memhers  one  of  cmother :  after  Eom.  xii.  5.  Falsehood 
makes  the  existence  of  any  real  communion  impossible.  Comp. 
Col.  iii.  9. 

26.  From  Ps.  iv.  4,  which  our  author  takes  to  mean,  "  If  ye  be 
angry,  sin  not  about  it."     Comp.  Col.  iii.  8. 

27.  After  Eom.  xii.  19.  This  verse  is  connected  with  the  pre- 
ceding one.  He  wlio  surrenders  himself  to  anger  is  in  danger 
(according  to  Gen.  iv.  7)  of  throwing  open  the  door  to  the  power 
of  the  evil  one. 

28.  After  1  Cor.  iv.  12;  1  Thess.  iv.  11 ;  Kom.  ii.  10;  Gal. 
vi.  10. 

29  =  Col.  iv.  6. —  That  which  is  good  to  the  use  of  edifying ^ 
should  be  "That  which  is  good  for  edifying  as  required,"  i.e.  as 
required  by  moral  and  religious  necessities. 

30.  Grieve  not  the  holy  Spirit  of  God :  As  the  Spirit  dM^ells  in 
the  community,  this  would  be  done  by  any  conversation  that 
served  to  corrupt  the  community. — Sealed :  after  2  Cor.  i.  22. 

31.  After  Eom.  ii.  8 ;  Gal.  v.  20 ;  comp.  Col.  iii.  8. 

32  =  Col.  iii.  12,  13.— i^w  Christ's  sake:  "in  Christ"  [so  lit.]. 

V.  1 — 20.  The  secoyul  table. 

About  five  more  commandments  follow  here  as  a  second  table. 

1.  After  1  Cor.  iv.  14,  16 ;  comp.  Col.  iii.  12. 

2.  After  Gal.  ii.  20;  Phil.  iv.  18;  comp.  Col.  iii.  13.— Z7s; 
many  good  MSS.  read  "you." — For  a  sweet  smelling  savour: 
ancient  sacred  phraseology ;  see  Lev.  i.  9. 

3  =  Col.  iii.  5.  After  Eom.  i.  24,  29;  1  Cor.  vi.  18;  2  Cor. 
xii.  21 ;  Gal.  v.  19 ;  1  Thess.  ii.  3,  iv.  3,  6,  7. 

4  -  Col.  iii.  8.     After  Eom.  i.  28. 

5.  After  Gal.  v.  21 ;  1  Cor.  vi.  9,  10. 

6  =  Col.  iii.  6 ;  comp.  Col.  ii.  4,  8.    After  Eom.  i.  18. 

7.  After  2  Cor.  vi.  14. 

8.  After  1  Thess.  v.  5 ;  Eom.  xiii.  12 ;  comp.  Col.  iii.  7. — 
Sometimes,  should  be  "  formerly." 


V.  9—26]  EPHESIANS.  17 

9.  After  Gal.  v.  22. — Kead,  "  For  the  fruit  of  the  light  consists 
in  all  goodness,"  &c. 

10.  After  Rom.  xii.  2. 

11.  After  2  Cor.  vi.  14;  Eom.  xiii.  12. 

12.  After  Rom.  xiii.  13. 

13.  A  development  of  the  thought  found  in  John  iii.  20,  21. — 
Whatsoever  doth  make  manifest :  "  everything  that  is  made  mani- 
fest." 

14.  After  Rom.  xiii.  11.  This  passage  as  quoted  is  not  to  be 
found  anywhere  in  the  Old  Testament.  Probably  it  is  a  poetical 
working  up  of  Ps.  xliv.  23 ;  Is.  xxvi.  19,  21,  li.  17,  Iii.  1,  Ix.  1,  2. 

15.  16  =  Col.  iv.  5.  After  Rom.  xiii.  13 ;  1  Cor.  viii.  9.— 
Redeeming  the  time :  i.e.  buying  up  the  time.  The  same  thing 
that  is  spoken  of  in  Dan.  ii.  8  as  "gaining  the  time,"  i.e.  making 
the  most  of  the  present  moment. 

17.  After  Rom.  xii.  2;  2  Cor.  xii.  11. 

18.  After  Rom.  xiii.  13. — Excess:  "debauchery." 

19  =  Col.  iii.  16.  Religious  enthusiasm. —  Yourselves:  "one 
another." 

20  =  Col.  iii.  17;  comp.  note  on  1  Thess.  v.  17,  18. 

V.  21 — vi.  9.   The  tahle  of  domestic  laiv. 
Over  and  above  the  general  Christian  virtues  just  enumerated, 
the  natural  social  relations  must  also  find  their  due  value  in 
Christianity,  and  be  consecrated  by  it. 

21.  General  superscriiJtion. 
[If  we  take  this  verse  as  the  heading  to  what  follows,  instead 
of  the  conclusion  of  what  has  preceded,  we  must  place  a  full 
stop  after  ver.  20.  In  addition  to  other  reasons  for  taking  it  so, 
may  be  noted  the  fact  that  the  verb  "  submit"  is  not  in  the  best 
MSS.  in  ver.  22,  the  sense  being  apparently  carried  on  from 
ver.  21.]— God :  All  the  good  MSS.  read  "  Christ." 

V.  22 — 31.   The  relation  hetioeen  man  and  wife. 

22 — 31  =  Col.  iii.  18,  19. — We  find  a  very  different  view  of 
this  relation  in  1  Cor.  vii.  2. 

23.  After  1  Cor.  xi.  3;  comp.  note  on  i.  23. — Of  the  body:  i.e. 
of  the  community  which  he  redeems  and  sanctifies. 

26.  After  Heb.  xiii.  12. — Read,  "That  he  might  sanctify  it 

VOL.  III.  c 


18  EPHESIANS.  [v.  26— vi.  12 

by  the  word  after  he  had  cleansed  it  by  the  washing  of  water." — 
A  distinction  is  drawn  between  the  cleansing  from  ancient  guilt 
(the  effect  of  baptism)  and  the  rendering  capable  of  new  holy 
conduct  (the  effect  of  the  Word,  as  in  John  xv.  3). 

27.  After  2  Cor.  xi.  2.—  Without  Uemish :  "  blameless." 

28.  See  note  on  i.  23. 

29.  After  1  Thess.  ii.  7. 

30.  After  Eom.  xii.  5  ;  1  Cor.  vi.  15. — Of  his  fiesh  and  of  his 
hones :  Not  found  in  the  best  and  oldest  MSS. 

31.  Quotation  of  Gen.  ii.  24;  after  1  Cor.  vi.  16. 

_-      Of)      oo 

V.  oA,  OO. 

32.  The  whole  view  of  the  relation  of  Christ  to  the  world 
and  the  church  as  set  forth  in  the  Epistle  is  summed  up  in  this 
illustration.  Hence  this  is  spoken  of  as  the  "great  mystery" 
[lit.  "This  mystery  is  great"].     See  note  on  i.  23. 

33.  Eeturn  to  the  main  idea,  and  summing  up. 

vi.  1 — 4.  Belation  hetiveen  parents  and  children. 

l_4  =  Col.  iii.  20,  21. 

2,  3.  From  Exod.  xx.  12  and  Deut.  v.  16.  The  writer  seems 
to  have  regarded  Exod.  xx.  6  =Deut.  v.  10  as  not  exactly  a  pro- 
mise, but  only  a  general  statement  of  God's  justice.  Hence  he 
calls  this  the  first  commandment  loith  promise. 

4.  Nurture :  "  discipline." 

vi.  5 — 9.  Relation  hctween  masters  and  servants. 
5_9  =  Col.  iii.  22— iv.  1.     After  1  Cor.  vii.  22. 

9.  Your  master  also  should  be  "  both  their  and  your  master." 

vi.  10 — 20.  Final  exhortation. 
The  Christian  must  not  only  live  in  Christian  fashion,  but  he 
must  also  pray  continually,  and  wage  incessant  war  with  the 
hostile  powers  of  an  impious  world  of  spirits. 

10.  After  1  Cor.  xvi.  13. 

vi.  11 — 17.   The  spiritual  armoury. 

After  1  Thess.  v.  8 ;  2  Cor.  x.  4;  based  upon  Is.  lix.  17. 

12.  Comp.  note  on  ii.  2. — [Eiders:  lit.  "world  rulers. — The 
darkness  of  this  loorld :  The  best  MSS.  read  "  this  darkness." — 
Spiritual  ivickedness  in  high  places :  lit.  "  the  spiritual  things  of 
wickedness  in  the  heavenly  (places)."] 


vi.  13 — 24]  EP  RES  TANS.  19 

13.  1)1  the  evil  day :  The  writer,  living  at  the  beginning  of  the 
times  of  systematic  persecution  of  Christianity  by  the  Eoman 
civil  power,  looks  for  a  crisis  when  all  the  collective  powers  of 
evil  will  turn  with  fiendish  defiance  and  spite  against  the  church. 
It  is  to  this  final  crisis  that  his  "call  to  arms"  applies. . 

16.   The  loickcd:  "the  wicked  one"  [so  the  Greek]. 

vi.  18—20. 

18  =  Col.  iv.  2.  The  way  to  obtain  such  weapons  is  here  de- 
scribed; after  Eom.  xii.  12;  Phil.  iv.  6. — Always:  see  note  on 
1  Thess.  V.  17. 

19  =  Col.  iv.  3.     After  2  Cor.  vi.  11. 

20  -  Col.  iv.  3,  4.     After  2  Cor.  v.  20. 

vi.  21—24. 
21,  22  =  Col.  iv.  7,8. 

23,  24.  Peculiar  conclusion ;  after  1  Cor.  xvi.  22. 

24.  In  sincerity  should  be  "in  incorruption "  or  "imperish- 
ably." 


c2 


THE    EPISTLE    TO   THE    PHILIPPIANS. 


This  is  the  swan-song  of  the  apostle.  It  is  addressed  to  the 
community  at  Philippi,  which  had  been  founded  about  ten  years 
previously,  when  his  hopeful  missionary  spirit  first  led  him  into 
Europe. 

Philippi,  an  important  and  flourisliing  city  of  Macedonia,  was 
the  first  place  in  Europe  where  Paul  preached  the  gospel  (Acts 
xvi.  9  sqq.),  and  this  was  on  his  second  missionary  journey 
(A.D.  53).  Though  his  labours  there  were  of  short  duration,  and 
were  broken  off  by  the  cruel  ill-treatment  to  which  he  was  sub- 
jected, yet  his  teachings  had  taken  root  among  the  Jews  and  still 
more  among  the  Gentiles,  and  from  the  root  that  remained  there 
soon  sprang  a  vigorous  Christian  community.  Like  its  founder, 
the  community  was  subject  to  severe  trials,  but  it  met  them  all 
with  unshaken  firmness,  distinguished  itself  by  the  good  spirit 
which  it  manifested,  and  retained  a  deep  affection  for  the  apostle, 
which  was  shown  by  the  fact  that  they  several  times  sent 
assistance  to  him  (PInl.  iv.  14  sq.).  On  his  third  missionary 
journey,  as  he  returned  from  Greece,  he  paid  another  visit  to  the 
community  which  was  so  dear  to  him  (Acts  xx.  6),  a  visit  whicli, 
we  cannot  doubt,  exerted  a  happy  influence  upon  the  community 
in  confirming  their  faith  and  giving  new  life  to  the  friendly 
relation  that  existed  between  them  and  the  apostle.  In  fact,  the 
community  at  Philippi  maintained  throughout  a  deep,  heartfelt 
devotion  to  Paul.  Hearing  of  his  imprisonment  in  Eome,  and 
rightly  supposing  that  he  might  find  himself  in  somewhat  strait- 
ened circumstances  there,  they  again  sent  to  him  a  gift  as  a 


TEE  EPISTLE   TO    THE  PEILIPPIANS.  21 

token  of  their  love  for  liim,  which  was  conveyed  by  one  of  the 
members  of  the  community,  Epaphroditus,  and  which  the  apostle 
received  with  grateful  joy  (iv.  16).  Epaphroditus  while  in  Eome 
was  overtaken  by  a  serious  illness,  and  on  his  recovery  felt  a 
yearning  desire  to  return  home,  a  desire  which  Paul  was  the  less 
inclined  to  resist  because  he  had  reason  for  suspecting  that  the 
Philippians  were  themselves  very  anxious  about  him  (ii.  25  sqq.). 

The  Epistle  which  Paul  gave  to  Epaphroditus  to  take  back 
with  him  relates  partly  to  the  accounts  which  he  had  received 
from  him  of  the  state  of  the  community,  and  partly  to  the  cir- 
cumstances in  which  the  apostle  himself  was  at  that  time  placed. 
■  In  regard  to  the  affairs  of  the  Philippians,  Paul  expresses  his 
satisfaction  and  joy  that  they  have  been  steadfast  in  their  faith 
(i.  3  sq.).  If  there  had  been  some  disturbances  of  the  harmony 
of  the  community,  this  had  not  been  caused  by  the  introduction 
of  erroneous  doctrines.  It  is  evident  from  the  whole  Epistle 
that  the  conception  of  the  gospel  which  Paul  had  set  before  them 
had  retained  its  supremacy.  At  the  same  time  the  apostle  consi- 
dered it  necessary  to  exhort  his  readers  to  harmony  and  humility 
(ii.  1  sqq.,  iv.  2  sqq.),  and  to  warn  them  against  the  proceedings 
of  teachers  disposed  to  Judaism  in  other  places,  in  order  to 
induce  them  to  keep  out  their  intrigues  (iii.  2  sqq.). 

Of  his  own  state  he  speaks,  now  with  gloomy  forebodings,  now 
with  the  expectation  of  speedy  deliverance  (i.  19  sqq.,  ii.  23),  and 
even  in  the  hope  of  soon  seeing  the  Philippians  again  (i.  26,  ii.  24). 
He  further  informs  them  that  his  imprisonment  has  not  pre- 
vented him  from  labouring  with  success  for  the  gospel,  and  that, 
roused  by  his  example,  some  of  the  brethren  are  preaching  Christ 
with  renewed  zeal,  though  not  always  from  the  purest  motives 
(i.  12  sqq.).  He  promises  to  send  his  beloved  Timothy  to  them 
as  soon  as  he  can  see  what  course  his  own  trial  will  take 
(ii.  19  sqq.).  He  acknowledges  the  receipt  of  the  assistance 
which  they  have  sent  him  by  Epaphroditus,  expressing  his  joy 
that  they  have  been  so  unceasingly  careful  for  him  with  such 
tender  affection  (iv.  10  sqq.) 


22  THE  EPISTLE   TO    THE  PHILIPPIAXS. 

The  whole  Epistle  bears  the  stamp  of  the  intimate  relation 
which  existed  between  Paul  and  the  Philippians,  and  the  deep 
love  which  he  felt  for  them.  Moreover,  it  is  strictly  an  "  occa- 
sional" Epistle.  Though  not  without  order  in  its  arrangement 
(see  Commentary),  it  does  not  follow  strictly  any  definite  line 
of  argument  or  statement,  and  it  shows  us  an  entirely  new 
side  of  the  apostle's  literary  activity.  We  see  in  it  unrestricted 
converse  with  his  readers,  in  which  he  allows  himself  free  play, 
and,  putting  aside  his  apostolic  authority,  talks  of  his  despon- 
dency and  his  inner  happiness,  his  weariness  and  his  hopes,  as 
a  friend  with  his  most  intimate  friends. 

This  style  of  composition,  which  might  naturally  be  expected 
considering  the  persons  concerned  and  the  circumstances  in 
which  the  Epistle  is  written,  also  affords  a  sufficient  explanation 
of  the  objections  which  have  been  raised  to  the  Pauline  author- 
ship of  the  Epistle  to  the  Philippians.  The  want  of  a  strict 
connection  between  the  parts  of  the  Epistle  is  fully  explained 
by  the  very  fact  that  it  is  written  in  this  epistolary  form  in  the 
strict  sense  of  the  word.  If  it  be  urged  that  the  Second  Epistle 
to  the  Corinthians,  while  also  written  in  this  form,  has  still  so 
much  more  serious,  severe  and  imposing  a  tone  and  style,  it  may 
justly  be  maintained,  on  the  other  hand,  that  an  Epistle  of  reproof 
and  admonition  addressed  to  a  Christian  community  which  was 
then  in  a  most  critical  position,  and  in  which  personal  attacks 
of  all  kinds  had  been  made  upon  the  apostle  himself,  must  of 
course  make  a  very  different  impression  from  that  made  by  a 
letter  of  thanks  addressed  to  a  community  that  had  never  swerved 
in  its  fidelity. — The  epistolary  character  of  the  composition  also 
explains  Paul's  change  of  tone  in  regard  to  his  Jewish-Christian 
opponents.  This  change  cannot  of  course  be  denied  when  we 
compare  i.  15 — 18  with  iii.  2  sq.  The  apostle,  annoyed  at  the 
continual  repetition  of  the  same  thing  on  the  part  of  his  Jewish 
opponents,  makes  use  of  expressions  of  violent  displeasure 
(iii.  2  sq.),  and  yet  in  another  passage  (i.  15 — 18)  shows  that 
he  no  longer  fears  anything  to  speak  of  even  from  these  Jewish 


THE  EPISTLE   TO   TEE  PEILIPPIANS.  23 

Christians,  and  judges  even  their  by  no  means  immaculate 
preaching  of  Christ  less  passionately  than  he  has  elsewhere  done. 
But  after  all,  when  we  consider  first  the  long  and  wearisome 
struggles  which  he  had  had  with  these  opponents,  some  of  whom 
at  least  were  so  very  inferior  to  him,  and  then  the  present  actual 
establishment  of  his  gospel  in  security  against  all  opponents, 
both  passages  are  equally  intelligible.  And,  moreover,  in  botli 
passages  it  is  ultimately  the  very  same  charge  that  he  brings 
against  his  opponents,  the  charge  of  personal  untruthfulness  and 
of  selfishness — in  a  word,  the  charge  of  insincerity. 

The  remaining  doubts  which  have  been  raised  as  to  the  authen- 
ticity of  the  Epistle  are  of  comparatively  little  weight.  That  the 
passage,  ii.  6  sq.,  concerning  Christ,  has  reference  to  Gnostic 
errors,  and  must  therefore  be  of  later  origin,  is  a  conjecture 
which  may  almost  be  said  to  have  been  finally  disposed  of. 
Closer  acquaintance  with  the  Gnostic  systems  shows  that  the 
words  have  no  very  certain  position  there ;  probably  they  are 
only  a  peculiar  expression  of  the  later  Pauline  Christology  whicli 
we  find,  for  example,  2  Cor.  viii.  9,  &c.  Phil.  iii.  11  is  not  the 
expression  of  a  doubt  as  to  the  resurrection  of  the  dead,  but 
whether  the  apostle  himself  will  live  to  see  the  return  of  Christ. 
Is  the  apostle  growing  old  and  feeble  ?  men  asked  one  another 
doubtfully.  And  the  answer  is  given  by  the  apostle  himself 
(i.  21 — 26)  in  a  description  of  his  own  feelings  which  bears  no 
marks  of  internal  improbability. 


THE  EPISTLE  TO  THE  PHILIPPIANS. 


i.  1— ii.  18. 

The  prisoner  Paul  testifies  to  the  Philippians  that  in  joyful 
remembrance  of  them  he  thanks  God,  and  beseeches  Him  further 
to  perfect  them.  He  gives  them  news  of  his  imprisonment 
■which  will  calm  their  anxiety  on  his  account,  and  exhorts  them 
to  steadfastness  and  harmony. 

i.  1,  2.  Address  and  greeting. 
Timothy  was  known  to  the  Philippians.  He  had  assisted  in 
their  conversion  (Acts  xvi.  1  sq.,  10  sq.,  xix.  22  sq.).  As  he  was 
at  this  time  staying  with  Paul  in  Piome,  and  the  apostle  intended 
shortly  to  send  him  to  Philippi  (ii.  19),  Paul  feels  it  right  to 
send  his  Epistle  not  only  in  his  own  name  but  also  in  that  of 
his  fellow-labourer. — i^aints:  well  known  as  an  appellation  of 
the  Christians  in  the  apostolic  age,  as  being  dedicated  to  God. — 
Bishops :  the  overseers  of  the  community,  also  called  "  elders." — 
Deacons:  see  Acts.  vi.  1  sq. 

i.  3 — 11.  Thanksgiving. 
4,  5.  Making  request,  &c.,  should  be  "making  my  prayer  with 
joy,  because  of  your  fellowship  in  regard  to  the  gospel,"  &c., 
i.e.  because  of  the  harmony  and  unity  which  prevailed  among 
the  Philippians  in  their  faith  in  the  gospel  and  their  confession 
of  it. 

6.  What  the  apostle  here  calls  a  good  ivork  is  the  same  that 
he  has  just  spoken  of  as  fellowship  in  regard  to  the  gospel. 

7.  Because  I  have  you,  &c.,  should  be  "  because  I  have  you  in 
my  heart  in  my  bonds  and  in  the  defence  and  confirmation  of 
the  gospel,  as  being  all  partakers  with  me  of  the  grace." — 3fy 
grace,  of  which  Paul  speaks  here,  is  the  grace  which  God  has 
shown  him  in  holding  him  worthy  to  be  in  bonds  for  the  gospel, 
and  to  defend  it  and  confirm  it.      The   Philippians  had  been 


i.  7—17]  PHILIPPIANS.  25 

made  companions  in  this  by  their  unanimity  and  fidelity  in  the 
confession  of  the  gospel,  which  has  just  been  held  up  by  him  to 
admiration. 

8.  In  the  bowels  (or,  as  we  should  say,  "in  the  heart")  of  Jesus 
Christ :  i.e.  in  the  love  of  Christ.  In  virtue  of  the  deep  spiritual 
communion  in  which  the  apostle  lived  with  Christ,  he  could  say 
that  his  love  was  Christ's  love,  and  conversely  that  Christ's  love 
was  his. 

9.  Springing  from  the  belief  in  Christian  truth,  Christian 
love  becomes  the  more  sincere  and  effectual  in  proportion  to  the 
illumination  and  the  depth  of  the  knowledge  of  this  truth. 

10.  Ap2^')'ove  things  that  are  excellent:  "prove  what  is  the 
best"  [lit.  "  prove  (or  approve)  the  things  that  differ,"  or  perhaps 
"the  things  that  make  a  difference"]. 

11.  Righteousness:  here,  as  often  in  the  New  Testament,  the 
whole  moral  disposition  of  the  Christian. 

i.  12 — 26.  Some  account  of  himself,  of  the  results  of  his  labours, 
and  of  his  own  feelings. 

12.  Bather:  lit.  "more,"  i.e.  more  than  one  would  have  ex- 
pected. 

13.  Eead,  "  So  that  my  bonds  have  become  manifest  in  Christ 
in  the  whole  preetorium  and  to  all  the  rest." — "Manifest  in 
Christ:"  i.e.  it  has  become  manifest  that  I  am  in  bonds,  not  on 
account  of  any  crime,  but  for  Christ's  sake. — "  Praetorium  :"  the 
quarters  of  the  imperial  body-guard,  to  whose  chief  officer  Paul 
had  been  handed  over  on  his  arrival  in  Eome  (Acts  xxviii.  16). — 
"All  the  rest:"  i.e.  many  who  did  not  live  in  these  barracks. 
The  apostle  was  allowed  to  converse  freely  with  those  who  visited 
him  (Acts  xxviii.  30). 

15.  In  Eome,  as  elsewhere,  there  were  Jewish  Christians  who 
would  not  acknowledge  the  apostolic  rank  of  Paul,  who  did  not 
approve  of  his  manner  of  teaching  the  gospel,  and  who  therefore 
sought  to  depreciate  liim  among  the  Eoman  Christians,  and,  on 
tlie  other  hand,  to  establish  themselves  in  all  the  higher  repu- 
tation. 

16.  Eead,  "They  that  are  led  by  factiousness  preach  Christ 
not  from  pure  motives,"  &c. 

17.  Lore:  i.e.  love  to  the  apostle. 


26  PHILIPPIANS.  [i.  16—26 

[16,  17.  The  reading  of  the  best  MSS.  is,  "Some  of  love 
knowing  that  I  am  set  for  the  defence  of  the  gospel ;  but  others 
of  contention  preach  Christ  not  sincerely  (i.e.  not  from  pure 
motives),  thinking  to  raise  up  afiliction  to  my  bonds."] 

18.  Here  we  see  the  noble  view  which  the  apostle  takes.  He 
rejoices  over  the  preaching  of  the  gospel,  even  when  it  is  caused 
by  motives  of  hostility  to  himself,  and  is  carried  on  in  a  very 
different  spirit  from  his  own. 

19,  20.  Paul  was  convinced  that  his  circumstances  in  Eome, 
as  they  had  turned  out,  and  would  further  turn  out,  would  tend 
to  his  salvation,  inasmuch  as  he,  whether  preserved  alive  or  deli- 
vered up  to  a  martyr's  death,  will  fearlessly  and  with  his  old 
boldness  preach  and  glorify  Christ.  Still  his  friends  must  assist 
by  their  prayers  and  by  imploring  the  descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 

19.  Siqoply  should  be  "  support." 

21.  To  the  apostle  Christ  appeared  as  the  end  and  aim  of  his 
whole  life.  Hence  he  is  convinced  that  his  prolonged  continu- 
ance in  life  will  serve  to  the  glorification  of  Christ.  But  while 
he  surrenders  himself  to  this  thought,  the  feeling  rises  within 
him  that  death  would  be  a  gain  to  him.  By  it  he  would  be 
exalted  to  the  complete  and  blessed  union  with  Christ.  Hence 
he  was,  as  he  says  in  the  next  verse,  uncertain  whether  it  would 
be  better  for  him  to  die  or  to  continue  to  live. 

22.  "  But  if  to  live  in  the  flesh  serve  to  make  more  fruit  [lit. 
"  But  if  to  live  in  the  flesh,  this  is  to  me  fruit  of  labour"],  then 
I  know  not  which  I  shall  choose." — "To  make  more  fruit,"  i.e. 
by  the  prolongation  of  his  apostolic  activity. 

23.  Eead,  "  But  I  am  oppressed  by  both,  having  a  desire,"  &c. 

24.  For  you  :  "  on  your  account." 

25.  And  having  this  confidence  I  know :  "  And  I  know  with 
confidence." — For  your  furtherance  (i.e.  in  Christian  perfection) 
and  the  heightening  of  your  joy  which  springs  from  faith  (your 
inner  bliss). 

26.  Eead,  "  So  that  your  ground  of  boasting  in  Christ  Jesus 
may  be  made  great  through  me,  by  means  of  my  dwelling  among 
you  again."  The  increase  of  the  boasting  of  the  Philippians  in 
Christ  Jesus  was  to  be  brought  about  by  means  of  the  further- 
ance of  their  faith  and  of  their  inner  blessedness  which  was  to 
be  brought  about  by  Paul  on  his  return. 


i.  27— ii.  3]  niiLiPPiANS.  27 

i.  27— ii.  18. 

A  fatherly  exhortation  to  united  action  in  the  rejection  of  adver- 
saries, and  at  the  same  time  to  union  among  themselves  based 
upon  humility,  of  which  Christ  is  the  type — now  the  glorified 
type — and  also  upon  the  common  labour  for  their  own  sanctifi- 
cation  and  salvation. 

i.  27— ii.  4. 

27.  [Conversation,  i.e.  "conduct;"  lit.  "Only  live  as  citizens 
worthily  of  the  gospel  of  Christ."] —  With  one  ■mind,  &c.,  sliould 
be  "  with  one  soul  contending  together  with  us  for  the  faith  in 
the  gospel" 

28.  The  adversaries  which  the  apostle  here  has  in  his  mind 
are  not  false  teachers  with  Jewish  tendencies,  but  opponents  of 
Christianity,  both  Jews  and  Gentiles.  In  the  invincible  stead- 
fastness with  which  the  Christians  resist  them,  they  ought  to  see 
a  divine  sign  of  the  judgment  which  is  in  store  for  them.  The 
Christians,  on  the  other  hand,  ought  to  see  in  it  a  sign  of  the 
salvation  prepared  for  them. 

29.  Eead,  "For  upon  you  has  the  grace  (or  favour)  been 
bestowed,  not  only  to  believe  in  Christ,  but  also  to  suffer  for 
him." — The  Philippians  should  regard  the  sufferings  for  Christ's 
sake,  to  which  they  are  exposed,  as  a  gift  of  God's  grace,  inas- 
much as  the  steadfast  endurance  of  them  was  bringing  them  to 
eternal  salvation, 

ii.  1—4. 
The  apostle  endeavours  to  excite  in  the  Philippians  every- 
thing that  could  cause  them  to  give  him  joy  by  the  preservation 
of  peace  and  unity  among  themselves.  He  apx^eals  to  the  union 
with  Christ  which  should  arouse  them  to  this,  to  the  love  which 
is  always  ready  to  give  comfort,  to  the  fellowship  of  the  spirit  in 
which  they  stand,  or  at  any  rate  should  stand,  with  him  and  one 
another,  and  to  the  sympathy  and  mercy  which  he  assumes  to 
be  in  their  hearts. 

1.  Consolation:  "exhortation." — [Bowels:  i.e.  "kind  feeling," 
as  we  say,  "  heart."] 

2.  Eead,  "  Make  my  joy  complete,"  &c. 

3.  Strife  should  be  "  contentiousness." — Disunion  and  a  con- 
tentious disposition  often  arise  from  vanity,  especially  when,  as 
seems  to  have  been  the  case  in  Philippi,  they  proceed  not  so 


28  PRILTPPIAXS.  [ii.  3—6 

much  from  difference  of  religious  opinion  as  from  pride  and  tlie 
self-exaltation  of  one  over  another.  This  is  the  reason  why  the 
apostle  adds  to  his  exhortation  to  unity,  a  further  exhortation 
to  humility  and  self-denial,  enforcing  it  by  an  appeal  to  the 
example  of  Christ. 

ii.  5—11. 

For  the  proper  understanding  of  this  passage  we  must  remem- 
ber that,  while  in  the  first  three  Gospels  and  the  Book  of  Acts 
Christ  appears  as  a  man,  only  distinguished  from  other  men  by 
the  possession  of  the  Holy  Spirit  in  all  its  fulness  and  perma- 
nently, Paul,  with  the  Fourth  Gospel,  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 
and  the  Eevelation  of  John,  regarded  Christ  as  the  highest  of 
all  heavenly  beings,  endowed  with  divine  perfections,  and  hence 
an  image  of  God,  who  during  his  pre-mundane  existence  be- 
came, by  commission  of  God,  the  creator  of  the  visible  and 
invisible  world,  who  at  the  time  appointed  by  God  appeared 
upon  earth  in  the  nature  of  a  man  for  the  purpose  of  the  redemp- 
tion and  reconciliation  of  men,  and  who  after  the  completion 
of  his  work  was  exalted  by  God  to  the  highest  degree  of  power, 
honour  and  glory  (1  Cor.  xv.  45 ;  2  Cor.  iv.  4,  viii.  9 ;  comp.  also 
Col.  i.  15  sq.,  ii.  3,  9,  10 ;  Eph.  iv.  8  sq.) 

6 — 8.  Read,  "Who  being  in  divine  form  [lit,  in  the  shape 
(or  image)  of  God],  esteemed  it  not  a  robbery  to  be  equal  with 
God,  but  divested  himself  [lit.  emptied  himself],  taking  the  form 
of  a  servant,  after  he  had  become  as  a  man,  and  being  found  in 
outward  appearance  as  a  man,  humbled  himself  and  became 
obedient  unto  death,  even  unto  death  upon  the  cross." 

6.  This  refers  to  the  pre-mundane  existence  of  Christ.  He 
was  originally  "  in  divine  shape,"  inasmuch  as,  bearing  within 
him  the  fulness  of  divine  perfection  (Col.  ii.  9),  he  was  an  image 
of  God  (Col.  i.  15),  a  reflection  of  His  glory  (Heb.  i.  3).  As  the 
image  of  God,  he  was  equal  ivith  God,  an  equality,  however,  which 
was  not  absolute,  and  did  not  exclude  dependence  upon  God 
and  subjection  to  Him  (Phil.  ii.  8,  9).— The  words,  "  He  esteemed 
it  not  a  robbery  to  be  equal  with  God,"  have  been  explained  in 
various  ways.  They  appear  to  mean  that  Christ  did  not  violently 
retain  his  equality  with  God,  because  it  naturally  belonged  to 
him,  but  voluntarily,  in  order  that  he  might  be  able  to  fulfil  the 
destiny  which  God  had  appointed  for  him,  "  divested"  himself 


ii.  6— lo]  PHILIPPIAXS.  29 

of  it  (vv.  7,  8) — a  renunciation  which  consisted  in  his  refraining 
from  revealing  the  divine  perfection  which  dwelt  within  hira, 
taking  upon  himself  human  nature,  appearing  in  servile  form 
among  men,  and  proving  obedient  to  the  will  of  God,  even  unto 
death  upon  the  cross. — Others  explain  as  follows  :  Christ  did 
not  (like  the  first  men)  tliink  of  securing  equality  with  God  by 
robbery,  but  he  obtained  it  by  the  voluntary  renunciation  of 
his  divine  form,  i.e.  of  his  ''heavenly  humanity,"  even  by  so  far 
renouncing  it  as  to  resemble  "  ordinary  humanity,"  by  obedience 
even  unto  death  upon  the  cross.  There  is,  however,  no  indication 
in  the  phraseology  of  the  passage  of  any  contrast  between  Christ 
(as  the  second  Adam)  and  the  first  man,  nor  of  the  distinction 
between  heavenly  and  ordinary  humanity. 

9.  Even  the  exaltation  and  glorification  of  Christ  was  the 
effect  of  divine  grace.  By  the  distinguishing  name  which  is 
given  to  him,  we  must  understand  (as  appears  from  ver.  11)  the 
name  of  Lord. 

10.  At  the  name:  "in  the  name"  [so  lit.],  i.e.  in  remembrance 
of  him  and  the  exalted  honour  bestowed  upon  him  by  God. — 
Things  should  be  "those."  Those  "under  the  earth"  are  the 
dead,  who,  according  to  the  ancient  Christian  view,  were  regarded 
as  living  in  some  place  under  the  earth  until  the  resurrection. 

11.  Christ  the  Lord,  the  glorious  head  of  the  church,  and  indeed 
of  the  whole  realm  of  reasonable  spirits.  If  beings  endowed  with 
reason,  wherever  they  dwell,  bow  the  knee  in  the  name  of  Jesus, 
still  the  confession  in  their  prayers  of  his  exalted  rank  as  Lord 
will  be  to  the  glory  of  God  the  Father,  because  this  honour  is 
bestowed  upon  Jesus  by  Him. 

ii.  12—18. 
12",  13.  But  noio  much  more :  out  of  consideration  for  the  bonds 
which  the  apostle  bore  for  Christ's  sake. —  JVith  fear  and  treni- 
hling :  i.e.  with  a  zeal  which  ever  fears  lest  it  should  not  do 
enough.  [To  do :  or  "  to  w^ork  ;"  same  word  as  worketh,  and  simi- 
lar to  the  word  rendered  "work  out"  in  ver.  12.] — Of  his  good 
pleasure  should  be  "  in  virtue  of  his  good- will." — The  moral  and 
religious  development  of  man,  which  is  necessary  for  eternal 
salvation,  is  brought  about  by  the  co-operation  of  human  will 
and  exertion  {"work  out,"  ver.  12)  and  the  divine  helper,  appear- 
ing in  the  dej^ths  of  the  spirit,  who  because  of  the  infinite  good- 


30  PHILIPPIANS.  [ii.  13—30 

ness  of  God  never  fails  him  who  is  able  and  willing  to  receive 
him.     It  is  therefore  the  work  of  man  and  God  alike. 

14.  Disputings:  "doubts." 

15.  Harmless:  "pure." 

17.  If  He  offered :  lit.  "  though  I  be  poured  out"  (as  a  drink- 
offering),  i.e.  though  my  blood  should  have  to  be  poured  forth  as 
that  of  a  beast  for  sacrifice. — "  Upon  the  sacrifice  and  worship," 
&c. :  Paul  regards  the  labours  which  he  has  undertaken  for  the 
sake  of  the  faith  of  the  Philippians  as  an  offering  of  sacrifice,  a 
religious  ceremony  which  he  has  performed  with  a  view  to  them. 

18.  However  painful  it  would  be  to  the  Philippians  if  the 
apostle  should  have  to  suffer  a  martyr's  death,  he  still  desires 
that  in  another  respect  they  should  rejoice  with  him  even  at  this, 
viz.  inasmuch  as  he  would  die  for  the  sake  of  the  go.spel  and  for 
the  furtherance  of  their  faith. 

ii.  19—30. 

Announcement  of  Timothy's  intended  visit,  and  of  the  return  of 
Epaphroditus,  ivith  commendation  of  them  both. 

21.  The  severe  sentence  here  pronounced  by  the  apostle  leads 
us  to  suppose  that  the  brethren  and  fellow- workers  who  were 
about  him  when  he  wrote  the  Epistle  to  the  Colossians  and  the 
Epistle  to  Philemon  (Col.  iv.  10,  12 ;  Philem.  23,  24)  were  now 
no  longer  with  him.  This  also  explains  why  he  sends  no  greet- 
ing from  them  (iv.  21,  22). 

22.  "  But  ye  know  his  uprightness  [lit.  as  in  A. V.,  i  e.  perhaps 
"his  proved  character"];  for  as  a  child  [so  lit.]  (serves)  his  father, 
so  has  he  served  the  gospel  [lit.  unto  the  gospel]  with  me." 

23.  Present!?/,  as  soon  as  I  shall  sec :  "  as  soon  as  ever  I  see." 
25.  /  supposed  it  necessary :  "  I  considered  it  necessary." — 

Epaphroditus  "ministered  to  the  wants"  of  the  apostle,  inas- 
much as  he  was  the  bearer  of  the  assistance  which  the  Philip- 
pians had  sent  to  alleviate  his  pressing  necessities. 

28.  Carcfnlly :  "  quickly." — That  when,  &c. :  "  that  when  ye 
see  him  ye  may  rejoice  again." 

30.  For  the  work  of  Christ :  To  bring  necessary  assistance 
to  an  apostle  of  the  Lord  might  truly  be  regarded  as  a  service 
done  to  Christ. — Hot  regarding  his  life  should  be  "  when  he 
staked  his  life." — To  svpply,  &c. :  "  that  he  might  serve  me  in 


ii.  30— iii.  10]  PHILIPPIANS.  31 

your  stead"  [lit.  "tlicat  he  might  supply  the  want  of  your  service 
toward  me"]. 

iii.  1 — 16.  Warning  against  false  teachers. 
It  seems  as  if  the  apostle  intended  to  bring  his  Epistle  to 
a  close  in  the  words  which  have  immediately  preceded,  but 
found  himself  compelled  to  repeat  the  solemn  warning  which 
follows  against  false  teachers  of  the  Jewish  school  which  he  had 
previously  given,  probably  in  an  Epistle  that  has  been  lost. 

1.  For  you  it  is  safe :  i.e.  it  serves  to  confirm  you. 

2.  That  the  apostle  here  has  false  teachers  who  are  disposed 
to  Judaism  in  view  is  very  certain  from  what  follows.  If  they 
had  not  found  any  admission  among  the  Philippians,  they  were 
nevertheless  a  threatening  danger. — Bogs :  strictly  "  the  dogs  ;" 
the  impure  or  insincere.  Dogs  were  regarded  by  the  Jews  as 
unclean  animals. — Concision:  "mutilation,"  a  name  given  con- 
temptuously to  those  who  set  an  immoderate  value  upon  their 
circumcision  in  the  flesh. 

3.  To  the  fleshly  circumcision  Paul  opposes  the  sjnritual  cir- 
cumcision which  should  take  place  in  every  Christian. — Those 
serve  God  in  the  spirit  who  offer  to  the  Infinite  Spirit  a  worship 
which  springs  from  the  spirit  that  is  enlightened  and  cleansed 
by  the  Holy  Spirit. — By  the  flesh,  Paul  here  means  external 
qualities  such  as  circumcision. 

8.  For  whom,  &c.,  should  be  "  for  whose  sake  I  have  lost  all 
these  things." — All  the  characteristics  here  adduced,  which  the 
apostle  had  formerly  regarded  as  advantages,  afterwards  appeared 
to  him  as  disadvantages,  because  they  had  long  kept  him  away 
i'rom  Christ;  and  so  they  still  continued  to  appear  to  him. 

9.  The  faith  of  Christ :  "  faith  in  Christ." — [By  faith  :  lit. 
"  upon  faith,"  i.e.,  probably,  reckoned  to  the  believer  upon  the 
ground  of  his  faith.] 

10.  Only  the  Christian  who  is  in  a  state  of  righteousness  by 
faith  attains  the  full  knowledge  of  Christ,  and  consciousness  of 
all  the  peace  and  strength  that  is  to  be  found  in  his  resurrection. 
If  he  suffers,  he  feels  that  he  is  united  with  his  Eedeemer  in  the 
fellowship  of  his  sufferings.  This  was  the  position  in  which  Paul 
himself  was.  In  the  serious  circumstances  in  which  he  was  then 
placed,  he  regarded  himself  in  anticipation  as  called  to  suffer  a 
martyr's  death  like  the  death  of  Christ. 


32  rHiLlPPlANS.  [iii.  11 — iv.  2 

11.  The  apostle  here  means  the  resurrection  of  the  Christians, 
which  in  his  view  was  to  be  the  first  (1  Cor.  xv.  23 ;  1  Thess. 
iv.  16). 

12.  Here  the  apostle  has  the  contests  in  the  Greek  games  in 
his  mind.  He  is  conscious  that  he  has  not  yet  attained  the  prize 
(the  prize  of  his  heavenly  calling,  ver.  14),  i.e.  he  has  not  yet 
attained  the  Christian  perfection  which  should  make  him  alto- 
gether worthy  of  it,  but  he  "pursues"  it  [A.V.  press  toward], 
fired  by  the  thought  that  it  is  precisely  in  order  that  he  may  lay 
hold  of  it  that  he  himself  has  been  laid  hold  of  by  God  in  his 
marvellous  conversion. 

14.  Hiyh  calling:  "heavenly  calling"  [lit.  upward  calling"]. 

15.  Of  course  Paul  is  not  speaking  here  of  a  moral  perfection 
that  has  attained  its  final  goal,  for  such  he  has  never  ascribed  to 
himself,  but  rather  of  a  moral  culture  which  makes  for  and 
approaches  this  goal. 

16.  Eead,  "  Only,  what  we  have  attained,  in  that  let  us  con- 
tinue to  walk  and  be  of  one  mind." — The  meaning  of  this  verse 
is  :  Until  those  higher  perceptions,  which  still  fail  us,  shall  have 
been  imparted  to  us  by  revelation,  let  us  walk  in  accordance  with 
what  we  have  so  far  attained  in  spiritual  things. 

iii.  17 — iv.  1.    Exlwrtation  to  steadfastness. 

18.  The  unworthiness  of  which  Paul  here  speaks  is  not  the 
same  which  he  dealt  with  in  ver.  2  of  this  chapter.  There  he 
spoke  of  the  tendencies  of  Jewish-Christian  doctrine.  Here  it 
is  selfishness  in  practical  life  that  brings  dishonour  upon  the 
cross  of  Christ. 

20.  Conversation  should  be  "commonwealth."  The  word 
means  properly  the  state  or  commonwealth,  that  which  Paul 
calls  the  heavenly  Jerusalem  (Gal.  iv.  2(j),  of  which  the  true 
Christians  are  already  citizens  in  spirit,  and  shall  one  day  be 
citizens  in  eternal  reality. 

iv.  2—23. 

Final  exhortations  to  harmony,  gentleness,  t^'ust  in  God  and 
Christian  virtue  generally.  TJmnks  for  the  assistance  that  has  been 
sent  to  him. 

2.  [Euodias  should  be  "  Euodia,"  a  woman's  name.] — The  two 
women  mentioned  here  and  the  reason  of  their  disagreement  are 
unknown  to  us.—  Beseech  :  "  exhort." 


iv.  3—15]  PHILIPPIANS.  33 

3.  And:  "yea"  [so  the  best  MSS.].— ro/.'t'-/t'//o?^';  The  word 
thus  translated  is  most  probably  a  proper  name,  Syzygus.  As 
the  Epistle  was  addressed  to  the  whole  community  at  Philippi, 
Paul  could  not  address  any  individual  member  separately  with- 
out naming  him. 

5.  Moderation :  "  gentleness."  The  thought  of  the  return  of 
Christ,  which  was  then  supposed  to  be  near  at  hand,  should 
make  the  Pliilippians  gentle  in  disposition  and  conduct. 

7.  Passeth :  better  "  surpasseth." — Through:  "in"  [so  lit.]. — 
By  the  ^^^ace  of  God,  Paul  understands  the  calmness  of  mind 
which  excludes  care,  and  is  confirmed  by  continual  prayer, 
which — not  being  produced  by  the  understanding,  but  by  faith 
and  the  assistance  of  the  Holy  Spirit — surpasseth  understanding 
(John  xiv.  27 ;  Rom.  xiv.  17,  xv.  33 ;  Col.  iii.  15). 

8.  [Just:  i.e.  "righteous."] — Think  on  these  things:  more 
strictly,  "  pay  attention  to  these  things." 

9.  Both:  "also." 

10.  That  now  at  the  last  your  care  for  me  hath  flourished  again, 
should  be  "  that  your  circumstances  have  turned  out  so  favour- 
ably that  you  should  provide  for  me,  though  ye  always  cared 
(for  me)  but  ye  lacked  opportunity." 

11.  In  respect  of:  "because  of." 

12.  Everywhere  and  in  all  things  I  am  instructed,  &c.,  should 
be  "  in  each  and  every  circumstance  I  understand  [lit.  "  I  have 
been  initiated"]  both  how  to  be  full  and  how  to  be  hungry,  both 
how  to  abound  and  how  to  suffer  want." 

[13.  Through :  lit.  "  in." — Some  of  the  best  MSS.  read  simply, 
"  I  can  do  all  things  in  him  that  strengtheneth  me."] 

14.  Tliat  ye  did,  &c.,  should  be  "  that  ye  took  upon  yourselves 
my  distress." 

15.  No  Church,  &c.,  should  be  "no  community  entered  into 
fellowship  with  me  in  an  account  of  giving  and  taking  except 
you." — The  fellowship  which  the  apostle  here  speaks  of  con- 
sists in  this,  that  Christian  communities  repay  him  with  the 
means  of  bodily  sustenance  for  the  spiritual  benefits  they  have 
received  from  him  (1  Cor.  ix.  11).  He  had  received  such  sup- 
port from  the  Pliilippians  when  he  left  Macedonia  again  in 
consequence  of  the  persecution  which  broke  out  against  him  in 
Philippi,  as  in  Thessalonica  and  Bereea  (Acts  xvii.  14).     But 

VOL.  III.  D 


34  PHILIPPIANS.  [iv.  15—23 

even  before  this  time,  during  his  residence  in  Thessalonica,  tlie 
Philippians  had  sent  assistance  to  him.  There  can  be  no  doubt 
that  they  also  had  a  share  in  the  support  which  he  afterwards 
received  from  Macedonia,  at  the  time  when  he  was  in  Corinth 
(2  Cor.  xi.  9). 

17.  Eead,  "  Not  that  I  seek  after  the  gift,  but  I  seek  after  the 
fruit  that  serves  to  increase  your  account." — The  gift  which  they 
send  to  the  apostle  will  bring  the  givers  themselves  fruit  or 
profit,  a  balance  in  favour  of  their  own  account  (for  the  day  of 
judgment) ;  comp.  2  Cor.  ix.  6 — 9. 

18.  I  am  full:  i.e.  I  have  plenty. — An  odour  of  a  sweet  smell: 
The  same  phrase  is  used  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians  (Eph. 
v.  2),  where  it  also  denotes,  though  in  a  different  connection,  a 
volu7itary  sacrifice. 

19.  According  to,  &c.,  should  be  "by  means  of  his  wealth, 
gloriously,  in  Christ  Jesus." 

21,  22.  [Salute,  greet :  the  same  word  in  the  Greek.] — The 
hrethren :  the  more  intimate  friends  of  Paul  who  were  then  stay- 
ing with  him.  The  other  members  of  the  Christian  community 
in  Rome  are  embraced  under  the  word  saints. — They  that  are  of 
Cccsar's  household :  probably  upper  or  under  servants  of  the 
emperor  dSTero). 

[23.  With  you  all:  The  best  MSS.  read,  "with  your  spirit;" 
comp.  Gal.  vi.  18.] 


THE    ETISTLE   TO   THE    COLOSSIANS. 


Colossi,  or  Colassge,  was  a  city  upon  the  upper  part  of  the 
river  Lycus,  in  Phrygia.  In  the  year  61  it  had  been  destroyed, 
together  with  the  neighbouring  city  of  Laodicea,  by  an  earth- 
quake (see  note  on  Matt.  xxiv.  7),  but,  like  this  latter  city,  it  had 
speedily  recovered  from  this  disaster.  Paul  had  been  twice  in 
Phrygia  (Acts  xvi.  6,  xviii.  23),  but  without  coming  into  the 
neighbourhood  of  Colossse  and  Laodicea,  on  which  account  he 
treats  both  these  communities  as  personally  unknown  to  him 
(ii.  1,  comp.  also  i.  4,  9,  23).  The  merit  of  founding  the  commu- 
nity at  Colossae  belonged  to  a  Colossian  of  the  name  of  Epaphras, 
who  must  have  been  upon  terms  of  special  intimacy  with  Paul 
(i.  7,  8,  iv.  12,  13),  and  is  acknowledged  by  him  without  reserve 
as  a  fellow-labourer  (i.  4,  ii.  6).  The  community,  which  had 
only  recently  been  founded  (i.  3 — 5,  9,  ii.  6,  7),  consisted  mainly 
of  Gentile  Christians  (i.  21,  27,  ii.  11,  13),  and  was  from  the 
beginning  Pauline  in  character.  Hence  the  great  interest  which 
Paul  takes  in  it  (i.  9,  ii.  1).  Epaphras  had  come  to  Paul  from 
Colossse,  and  he  probably  shared  for  a  time  his  imprisonment, 
whence  in  the  Epistle  to  Philemon  he  is  spoken  of  as  a  fellow- 
prisoner  (Philem.  23),  as  is  Aristarchus  in  our  Epistle  (Col.  iv.  10). 
This  imprisonment  may  possibly  have  been  the  imprisonment  in 
Csesarea,  since  Aristarchus  and  Luke  (iv.  10,  14)  were  with  the 
apostle  there,  as  well  as  in  Kome.  On  the  other  hand,  the  men- 
tion of  Demas  (iv.  14,  comp.  2  Tim.  iv.  10),  Timothy  (i.  1,  comp. 
Phil.  i.  1,  ii.  19)  and  Mark  (iv.  10,  comp.  2  Tim.  iv.  11),  would 
rather  lead  us  to  look  to  Kome.     And  this  latter  view  is  espe- 

D  2 


36  THE  EPISTLE  TO    THE  COLOSSIANS. 

cially  confirmed  by  the  distinction  drawn  between  Gentile  and 
Jewish  teachers,  from  which  it  appears  (iv.  11,  which  agrees 
■with  Phil.  i.  15 — 17,  iii.  2)  that  the  number  of  the  latter  who 
acted  in  a  friendly  and  helpful  manner  towards  the  apostle  was 
only  small.  In  addition  to  this,  the  comparative  freedom  of 
action  assumed  here  (iv.  3,  11)  agrees  with  the  account  of  his 
Eoman  imprisonment  (Acts  xxviii.  30,  31). 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  Epistle  to  the  Colossians  was 
written  by  the  hand  of  Timothy  (i.  1)  and  taken  to  Colossse.  by 
Tychicus  (iv.  7,  8).  The  occasion  of  it  was  the  news  brought  by 
Epaphras,  referring  chiefly  to  the  intrusion  into  the  community 
of  a  dangerous  opposition  to  the  Pauline  gospel  (i.  8,  9).  These 
opponents,  however,  bear  only  a  very  general  resemblance  to  those 
who  are  dealt  with  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians  (see  notes  on 
ii.  16 — 23).  They  are  much  more  like  the  "weak"  who  are  men- 
tioned in  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  (Rom.  xiv.  5,  6,  21),  who, 
starting  from  principles  of  Essenic  origin,  i.e.  from  purely  human 
assumptions  (see  note  on  ii.  8),  prohibited  the  use  of  wine  and 
flesh  (see  Vol.  II.  pp.  39  sq.,  171  sq.).  But  while  these  latter 
simply  had  scruples  about  themselves  eating  and  drinking  all 
things  without  distinction,  the  opponents  of  Paul's  teachings 
who  had  made  their  way  into  the  communities  in  Colossse  and 
Laodicea — for  the  circumstances  were  the  same  in  both  places 
(ii.  1,  iv.  13 — 16) — aimed  at  making  this  abstinence  a  condition 
of  salvation  for  all  alike  (see  note  on  ii.  21). 

If  our  Epistle  went  no  further  than  this  in  its  description  of 
the  false  teachers,  then,  in  connection  with  this  matter  at  any 
rate,  there  would  be  no  difficulty  in  the  way  of  our  believing 
that  it  was  written  by  Paul.  But  serious  suspicions  are  aroused 
by  the  fact,  that  not  only  are  the  opponents  ascetics  in  practice 
(see  note  on  ii.  21),  but,  further,  their  doctrine  is  a  system  of 
angel- worship  (see  notes  on  i.  18,  ii.  18).  This  seems  to  bring 
us  down  to  the  time  of  a  clearly-defined  gnosis,  and  is  manifestly 
connected  with  similar  ideas  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians  (see 
note  on  ii.  15).     And,  moreover,  the  Christology  of  our  Epistle, 


THE  EPISTLE   TO    THE  C0L0SSIAN3.  37 

which  is  opposed  to  this  false  Angelology  (see  notes  on  i.  14 — 21, 
ii.  9, 10),  is  worked  out  by  means  of  the  very  same  conceptions 
which  we  have  already  recognized  as  peculiarly  characteristic  of 
the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians.  We  find  again  the  "eeons  and 
generations"  (see  note  on  i.  26),  the  "head  of  the  body"  and  the 
"fulness"  (see  note  on  ii.  9,  10,  iii.  11),  the  "mystery"  (see  note 
on  i.  27),  the  idea  of  the  union  of  the  things  that  have  previously 
been  divided  and  opposed  to  one  another  in  the  world  (see  notes 
on  i.  20,  iii.  15) ;  and  here,  as  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians, 
we  find  a  preponderance  of  those  ideas  which  are  connected  with 
the  intellectual  aspects  of  Christianity,  "  knowledge,"  "  wisdom," 
"  understanding,"  &c.  Some  of  these  ideas  are  applied  in  such  a 
way  as  to  come  into  actual  contradiction  of  the  outlines  of  the 
Pauline  system  as  known  to  us  from  other  sources  (see  notes  on 
i.  16,  24).  Here  again,  as  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians,  we 
are  puzzled  by  finding  the  assurance  that  Paul  has  been  made 
a  servant  of  the  gospel  and  the  church  (i.  23),  which  is  repeated 
again  immediately  afterwards  (i.  25).  Again,  the  disappearance 
of  the  characteristic  Pauline  ideas  and  the  appearance  of  new 
watchwords  proceed  step  by  step  together.  The  language  of  the 
Epistle,  especially  in  the  first  two  chapters,  is  pretty  nearly  as 
cumbrous  and  reiterative  as  that  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians. 
We  find  a  similar  choice  of  words  and  expressions  to  that  which 
on  the  face  of  it  removes  the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians  from  the 
category  of  the  genuine  remains  of  the  apostle.  The  only  difference 
between  the  two  Epistles  is,  that  the  peculiarities  of  the  Epistle 
to  the  Ephesians  pervade  the  whole  of  it,  whereas  in  the  Epistle 
to  the  Colossians  they  are  combined  and  interwoven  with  un- 
doubtedly Pauline  material,  to  which  special  attention  will  be 
called  in  the  notes.  In  regard  to  the  signs  of  unauthenticity, 
the  Epistle  to  the  Colossians  is  in  part  what  the  Epistle  to  the 
Ephesians  is  entirely. 

To  what  has  been  already  said  must  be  added  the  fact  that 
these  two  Epistles  stand  in  a  very  peculiar  literary  relation  to 
one  another.     Not  only  do  they  appear  to  have  been  written  in 


38  THE  EPISTLE   TO    THE  COLOSSIANS. 

similar  circumstances  (see  Col.  iv.  7,  8  =  Epli.  vi.  21,  22),  but 
they  proceed  pari  passu  in  regard  to  form  and  contents,  and  are 
related  to  one  another  in  a  manner  of  which  we  have  no  other 
example  in  the  writings  of  Paul,  but  which  finds  an  exact  parallel 
in  the  mutual  relation  of  the  first  three  Gospels  (see  Vol.  I. 
pp.  39  sqq.).  Hence  we  not  only  find  serious  difficulties  regard- 
ing the  genuineness  of  each  Epistle  separately,  but,  in  addition 
to  this,  we  are  met  by  the  great  objection  that  it  is  difficult  to 
understand  how  so  powerful  and  original  a  mind  as  that  of  Paul 
could  repeat  itself  in  so  poverty-stricken  a  fashion,  as,  for  example, 
to  compress  all  the  expressions  of  Eph.  i.  9,  18,  iii.  8,  9,  16,  17, 
into  the  difficult  sentence  of  Col.  i.  27,  or  altogether  to  destroy 
the  connection  between  vv.  12  and  13  in  Col.  iii.  by  placing  them 
at  the  beginning  and  end  of  the  chapter  in  the  Epistle  to  the 
Ephesians  (Eph.  iv.  2,  3,  32).  In  the  notes  on  each  Epistle  we 
have  given  throughout  the  references  to  the  corresponding  pas- 
sages in  the  other,  and  thus  provided  a  safe  clue  whereby  to 
follow  out  this  puzzle.  Naturally  enough,  there  has  been  no 
want  of  various  solutions  of  it.  From  the  fact  that  in  the  Epistle 
to  the  Ephesians  (vi.  21)  the  writer  says  that  "ye  also"  may 
know  (what  the  Colossians  already  know),  it  has  been  inferred 
that  the  Ej)istle  to  the  Colossians  was  written  first.  Then,  again, 
from  his  saying  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Colossians  (iii.  8),  "ye  also" 
should  put  away  (what  the  Ephesians  have  already  put  away), 
it  has  been  argued  that  the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians  was  written 
first.  Thus  for  a  long  time  those  who  maintained  that  the  Epistle 
to  the  Ephesians  was  the  original  Epistle,  and  those  who  main- 
tained that  it  was  based  ujDon  the  Epistle  to  the  Colossians, 
stood  in  uncompromising  opposition  to  one  another.  Latterly, 
however,  there  has  been  an  increasing  number  of  scholars  who 
have  maintained  that  there  is  a  mutual  interdependence  of  the 
two  Epistles,  and  have  assumed  the  existence  of  a  short  original 
Epistle  of  Paul  to  Colossse,  which  the  writer  of  the  Epistle  to 
the  Ephesians  worked  up  into  its  present  form,  enlarging  it  by 
the  introduction  of  ideas  and  expressions  of  his  own.     Such  a 


THE  EPISTLE   TO   THE  COLOSSI  A  NS  39 

proceeding  is  by  no  means  strange  to  those  who  are  acquainted 
with  the  methods  of  the  writers  of  that  period  and  the  origin  of 
its  literary  productions.  In  the  ancient  church  we  find  that  this 
is  a  phenomenon  of  universal  occurrence.  In  order  to  adapt 
them  to  the  special  purposes  and  ecclesiastical  requirements  of 
altered  times  and  different  circles  of  readers,  writings  are  short- 
ened or  lengthened,  or  in  parts  completely  re-written ;  they  are, 
so  to  speak,  in  a  continual  state  of  transformation.  As  the  first 
three  Gospels  resemble  a  leaf  of  clover,  the  three  parts  of  which 
divide  from  a  common  point,  which  must  be  clearly  ascertained 
by  systematic  study  before  it  is  possible  to  comprehend  them 
aright,  so  these  two  Epistles  form  a  pair  similarly  united ;  and 
the  final  interpretation  of  the  one  decides  at  the  same  time  our 
opinion  regarding  the  other. 


THE  EPISTLE  TO  THE  COLOSSIANS. 


i.  1,  2  =  Eph.  i.  1,  2. 
i.  3—8. 
Paul  gives  thanks  to  God  for  the  Christian  character  and 
disposition  which  have  developed  among  the  Colossians  as  the 
result  of  the  preaching  of  the  gospel  among  them. 
3,  4  =  Eph.  i.  15—17. 

5.  For  the  hope :  The  love  mentioned  in  ver.  4  (i.e.  the  interest 
in  the  welfare  of  other  communities,  the  support  given  to  others, 
and  the  hospitality  of  the  Colossians)  has  its  foundation  in  this 
hope  (comp.  Eph.  i.  3, 12, 13,  18). — Heard  before :  i.e.  before  "  we 
heard,"  ver.  4. 

6,  7.  This  calling  up  to  memory  the  manner  in  which  the 
gospel  was  brought  to  the  readers  of  the  Epistle  and  became 
effectual  in  them,  gives  occasion  to  mention  also  the  personal 
relation  in  which  the  readers  stood  to  those  who  brought  'the 
gospel  and  delivered  it  to  them. 

[7.  Fellowservant  ....  minister:  more  accurately,  "fellow- 
slave  ....  servant."] 

i.  9—12. 

Tlie  mission  of  Epaphras  affords  a  reason  for  Paul  also  to 
exert  himself  on  behalf  of  his  readers,  and  this,  first  of  all,  by 
unceasing  prayer  for  their  spiritiml  increase. 

9.  Comp.  Eph.  i.  8,  11,  lb— 11  .—Desire :  "entreat." 

10,  11  =  Eph.  iv.  1  (comp.  also  Eph.  ii.  10),  i.  17,  19,  iii.  16. 

12.  Comp.  Eph.  i.  11,  18. 

i.  13—23. 
As  Paul  rejoices  in  the  progress  which,  under  the  blessing  of 
God,  the  gospel  has  made  among  his  readers,  so  it  is  for  them  to 
understand  in  all  its  bearings  the  benefit  of  the  redemption  and 
reconciliation  obtained  for  them  through  Christ. 

13.  Comp.  Eph.  i.  6,  ii.  2,  3. 


i.  14—21]  COLOSSTANS.  41 

14 — 21.  Here  we  have  the  first  discourse  concerning  the 
person  and  office  of  Christ,  in  implied  though  unexpressed  oppo- 
sition to  the  system  of  the  false  teachers. 

14  =  Eph.  i.  7. — Through  his  blood :  These  words  are  not  found 
in  the  best  MSS. 

15.  According  to  this  verse,  Christ  is  the  visible  representative 
of  the  eternally  invisible  God  in  the  creation  to  which  he  himself, 
as  being  also  a  creature  (comp.  Heb.  iii.  2,  note),  belongs.  On  the 
other  hand,  indeed,  as  ver.  16  shows,  he  is  eternally  superior  to  it. 

16  =  Eph.  i.  21,  22;  comp.  Eph.  i.  10,  iii.  9,  10.— Bij  Mm: 
"  through  him."  [Lit.  it  is  "in  him"  the  first  time,  and  "through 
him"  the  second  time]. — TJirones :  The  same  rank  of  angels  as 
the  "powers"  spoken  of  in  1  Cor.  xv.  24;  Rom.  viii.  38. — Bjj 
him,  and  for  him :  "  Through  him  and  to  him."  This  goes  beyond 
the  teaching  of  Paul,  inasmuch  as  Christ  is  here  not  only  the 
intermediate  cause  ("through  him"),  as  in  1  Cor.  viii.  6,  but 
also  the  goal  of  the  creation  of  the  world  ("to  him"). 

17.  Comp.  Eph.  i.  10,  22.— By  him:  "in  him."— In  the  "first- 
born" God  created  at  the  same  time  the  whole  world.  This 
reminds  us  in  every  respect  of  the  position  of  the  Logos  in  the 
writings  of  Philo  and  in  the  Fourth  Gospel  (see  Vol.  I.  pp. 
204  sqq.). 

18  =  Eph.  i.  22,  23;  comp.  Eph.  i.  20,  iv.  15,  v.  23.  The 
copiousness  of  these  definitions  of  Christ  suggests  that  the  oppo- 
nents of  the  writer  held  a  different  doctrine  in  regard  to  the  cause 
and  purpose  of  the  world,  assigning  a  more  favourable  position 
to  the  various  classes  of  angels  mentioned  in  ver,  16,  and  a  less 
favourable  to  Christ. 

19  =  Eph.  i.  23;  comp.  Eph.  i.  10. — The  Father:  these  words, 
or  simply  "  God,"  are  rightly  supplied  to  complete  the  sense  of 
the  verse. — All  fulness  :  i.e.  of  the  Deity,  as  in  ii.  9. 

20  =  Eph.  ii.  16,  i.  10  ;  comp.  Eph.  i.  7,  ii.  13 — 15,  except  that 
in  the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians  it  is  rather  the  opposites  upon 
earth  (Jews  and  Gentiles),  here  the  opposites  in  the  universe 
(heaven  and  earth,  angels  and  men),  which  have  been  united 
into  one  by  the  reconciling  death  of  Christ,  and  so  have  been 
reconciled  at  the  same  time  to  one  another  and  in  him. 

21  =  Eph.  ii.  1,  12,  13,  15, 16  ;  comp.  Eph.  ii.  2,  3,  10,  iv.  18.— 
Sometime  should  be  "  at  one  time." 


42  COLOSSIANS.  [i.  22— ii.  2 

22.  Comp.  Eph.  ii,  IG ;  and  for  the  second  part  of  the  verse 
Eph.  i.  4,  V.  27. 

23.  Comp.  Eph.  iii.  17,  and  iii.  1. 

i.  24—29. 
The  preceding  demand  is  supported  by  reference  to  the  apostle's 
own  labours  and  sufferings  for  the  good  of  his  readers. 

24  =  Eph.  iii.  1,  13.  As  the  church  is,  as  it  were,  the  com- 
pletion of  Christ  (see  note  on  Eph.  i.  23),  so  sufferings  which 
have  been  borne  in  its  service  and  for  its  good  are  a  continuation, 
supplement  and  completion  of  the  sufferings  of  Christ.  This 
idea  is  irreconcilable  with  Paul's  fundamental  idea  of  the  death 
of  Christ. 

25  =  Eph,  iii,  2 ;  comp.  Eph.  iii.  7,  8. — [^Dispensation :  better, 
"  stewardship ;"  see  note  on  Eph.  iii.  2.] 

26  =  Eph.  iii.  3,  5,  9. — From  ages,  &c. :  lit.  "  from  the  jeons  and 
from  the  generations,"  i.e.  ages  and  generations  long. — Is:  "has 
been." 

27  =  Eph,  i.  9, 18,  iii.  9. —  Would  make  knoion:  "has  willed  to 
make  known." — In  you  should  be  "  among  you." — According  to 
this  verse,  also,  the  substance  of  the  divine  mystery  is  "  Christ 
among  you"  (i.e.  among  the  Gentile  Christians),  the  bringing  in 
of  the  Gentiles,  and  the  abolition  of  the  opposition  betw'een  the 
different  nations. 

28.  Comp.  Eph.  iii.  9,  iv.  13, 

29.  Comp.  Eph.  iii.  7,  20. 

ii.  1—5. 
The  apostle  puts  himself  in  a  personal  relation  with  his  hearers 
by  assuring  them  of  the  great  exertions  he  makes  to  bring  tliose 
who  are  personally  unknown  to  him  into  perfect  truth. 

1.  According  to  this,  the  communities  at  Colossse  and  Laodicea 
were  personally  unknown  to  Paul. 

2.  Comp.  Eph.  iii.  17 — iv.  16, — Acknowledgment:  "knowledge." 
— And  of  the  Father  and:  These  words  are  not  found  in  the 
best  MSS.,  which  therefore  read,  "the  m3^stery  of  the  God  of 
Christ."  [The  readings  here  are  very  various ;  among  others  are, 
"  the  mystery  of  God,  which  is  Christ ;"  "  the  mystery  of  God  in 
Christ ;"  "  the  mystery  of  God,  the  Father  of  Christ ;"  "  the  mys- 
tery of  the  God  and  Eather  of  Christ ;"  "  the  mystery  of  God  the 


ii.  2—10]  COLOSSIANS.  43 

Father  and  of  Christ ;"  "  the  mystery  of  God ;"  and  the  reading- 
given  in  A. v.] 

3.  Comp.  Eph.  iii.  9,  19. 

4.  Enticiyig  should  be  "deceitful." — This  verse  is  directed 
against  the  false  representation  that  the  apostle  cared  little  or 
nothing  about  the  communities  with  which  he  w^as  not  personally 
acquainted  (comp.  Eph.  iv.  17,  v.  6). 

ii.  6—15. 
The  apostle  now  passes  on  to  the  proper  subject  of  his  letter, 
for  the  sake  of  which  it  is  written,  viz.  the  warning  against  foreign 
influences,  including  the  demand  to  submit  to  circumcision.  In 
tlie  first  place,  he  establishes  the  fact  that  Christian  baptism, 
which  his  readers  have  already  accepted,  represents  on  a  higher 
stage  of  fulfilment  the  very  same  thing  which  circumcision  was 
in  the  Old  Testament,  so  that  it  would  be  unmeaning  to  wish  to 
have  both  together. 

6.  Comp.  Eph.  iv.  17,  20. 

7.  Comp.  Eph.  ii.  20,  iii.  17. 

8.  Comp.  Eph.  iv.  14,  v.  6. — PMlosopJiy :  The  false  doctrine 
was  based  upon  a  definite  philosophical  system,  according  to 
which  the  whole  material  world  was  a  thing  opposed  in  its  very 
nature  to  God.  Hence  the  requirement  of  abstinence  (vv.  16,  21). 
—  Tradition:  The  same  word  that  is  used  in  Matt.  xv.  2,  3  =  Mark 
vii.  3,  5.  The  demands  just  mentioned  went  beyond  the  Law, 
which  left  men  free  at  least  to  take  meat  and  wine. — Rndimcnts 
of  the  tuorld  should  be  "  elements  of  the  (material  and  visible) 
universe"  (see  note  on  Gal.  iv.  1 — 7). 

9.  10.  Here  we  have  a  second  disquisition  on  the  nature  and 
office  of  Christ  of  the  same  character  as  that  in  i.  14 — 21. 

9.  Comp.  Eph.  i.  23. — The  full  and  complete  nature  of  Gotl, 
which,  according  to  the  Gnostics,  was  divided  among  a  whole 
kingdom  of  spirits  (the  "aeons"),  dwells  in  Christ;  and,  more- 
over, dwells  in  him  hodily;  that  is  to  say,  either  that  Christ,  living 
in  the  body,  embraces  within  himself  all  that  makes  God,  who 
is  the  Spirit,  to  be  God ;  or  else  that  the  fulness  of  the  Godhead 
dwells  in  him  hodily,  as  distinguished  from  the  sJiadoios  of  the 
Old  Testament  mentioned  in  ver.  17. 

10.  Complete  should  be  "filled;"  i.e.,  as  in  Eph.  iii.  19,  "unto 
all  the  fulness  of  God."     As  God  completely  fills  Christ,  so  the 


44  COLOSSI ANS.  [ii.  10 — 20 

members  of  the  community  share  in  this  fulness  inasmuch  as 
they  are  members  of  his  body  (comp.  Eph.  i.  23). — Head :  of  all 
angelic  powers,  as  in  Eph.  i.  21.  On  the  purpose  of  this  state- 
ment, see  note  on  i.  18. 

11.  The  lody  of  the  siiis  of  the  flesh  should  be  "the  body  of  the 
flesh." — The  circumcision  "  made  with  hands"  is  the  earthly  type 
of  the  process  "  not  made  with  hands"  (comp.  2  Cor.  v.  1)  which 
takes  place  in  baptism,  and  which  is  here  called  the  "putting  off 
the  body  of  the  flesh"  (comp.  Eom.  vi.  4).  This  is  the  "  circum- 
cision of  Christ"  (comp.  Eph.  ii.  11). 

12.  Comp.  Eph.  ii.  6,  i.  20. — Faith  of  the  operation  should  be 
"  faith  in  the  operation." 

13  =  Eph.  ii.  5 ;  comp.  Eph.  ii.  1,  4,  11. 

14  =  Eph.  ii.  15,  IQ.— Of  ordinances :  This  shows  that  th^  hand- 
writing is  "  the  Law." — This  verse  is  practically  equivalent  to 
Gal.  iii.  13. 

15.  Sjpoiled :  i.e.  stripped  of  their  armour  and  power. — 171  it 
should  be  "  in  him." — The  contents  of  this  verse  are  connected 
with  Eph.  ii.  15,  16,  iii.  10,  iv.  8.  "In  him,"  i.e.  by  the  result 
of  Christ's  cause  upon  earth,  God  has  solemnized  an  open 
triumph  before  the  world  over  the  spiritual  powers  which  bore 
sway  among  the  Gentiles,  and  made  a  spectacle  of  them  in  all 
their  emptiness  and  unreality  before  those  who  had  hitherto 
been  their  servants  and  adherents. 

ii.  16—23. 
More  detailed  description  and  refutation  of  the  false  doctrines, 
the  natural  wisdom  and  human  precepts  of  which,  with  their 
various  additional  mediations  between  man  and  God,  have  been 
left  far  behind  by  those  believers  who  hold  fast  to  the  Head. 

16.  Just  the  same  as  Gal.  iv.  10 ;  Eom.  xiv.  2  sq.,  17. 

17.  The  same  as  Heb.  viii.  5,  ix.  9 — 11,  x.  1. 

18.  The  text  of  this  verse  is  somewhat  obscure  and  doubtful. 
The  idea  of  the  false  teachers  is  that  man,  whose  origin  is  earthly 
and  material,  occupies  too  humble  a  position  to  have  direct 
intercourse  with  God,  and  therefore  requires  the  mediation  of 
angelic  powers. — Beguile  you  of  your  reivard  should  be  "  decide 
against  you  in  regard  to  your  prize." 

19  =  Eph.  iv.  15,  16. 

20.  Exactly  the  same  thing  as  in  Eom.  vi.  2,  6 — 1 1,  vii.  4 — 6  ; 


ii.  20 — iii.  12]  COLOSSIANS.  45 

Gal.  ii.  19,  20,  iv.  3,  8 — 10  ;  comp.  Eph.  ii.  15. — Rudiments  of  the 
world  should  be  "  elements  of  the  (materially  visible)  universe." 

21.  The  precepts  here  adduced  as  those  of  the  opponents  show 
us  that  they  were  persons  who  sought  to  bring  about  the  eman- 
cipation of  the  spirit  from  the  fetters  of  the  body  by  a  consistent 
enfeebling  and  mortification  of  the  latter  ("ascetics"),  and  who, 
with  a  view  to  this,  introduced  distinctions  in  regard  to  different 
kinds  of  food  just  like  those  observed  by  the  "weak"  who  are 
spoken  of  in  Eom.  xiv. — [Touch  not,  &c. :  more  exactly,  "  Handle 
not  (lit.  "grasp  not"),  taste  not,  touch  not."] 

22,  23.  The  construction  here  is  difficult.  The  general  sense 
is  that  of  the  A.V. —  Will  laorship  should  be  "  arbitrary  service." 
On  this  and  "humility,"  see  note  on  ver.  18  and  p.  36.  The 
sense  of  these  two  verses  is  practically  the  same  as  that  of 
1  Cor.  vi.  13. — Neglecting  of  the  hody :  "not  sparing  the  body"  [so 
lit.,  i.e.  treating  it  with  harshness  and  severity]. 

iii.  1—11. 
Instead  of  expecting  salvation  from  any  arbitrary  self-morti- 
fication, the  readers  of  the  Epistle  are  to  seek  after  communion 
with  the  super-mundane  Christ,  and  divest  themselves  of  every- 
thing that  militates  against  this. 

I,  2.  Comp.  Eph.  ii.  6,  i.  20. 

3  =  Eph.  iii.  9.  Exactly  the  same  as  Eom.  vi.  8 — 11,  vii.  4; 
Gal.  ii.  19,  20. 

4.  Comp.  Eph.  i.  l^.—Our:  "your"  [the  MSS.  are  divided]. 

5— 7  =  Eph.  ii.  2,  3,  iv.  19,  v.  3,  5,  6,  8. 

7.  Eead,  "  Among  whom  ye  also  formerly  walked." 

8—10.  After  Eph.  iv.  22—26,  29,  31,  v.  4. 

10.  Is  reneived  in  hiotoledge :  "  is  being  renewed  unto  the 
knowledge."  The  fact  that  emphasis  is  laid  upon  this  particular 
point,  corresponds  with  what  has  been  said  (pp.  36  sq.)  of  the 
writer's  apprehension  of  Christianity  from  the  intellectvial  side. 

II.  Christ  is  all  and  in  all:  so  that  he  "filleth"  all,  as  in 
Eph.  i.  23. 

iii.  12—17. 
Commands  as  to  the  things  that  are  to  be  "  put  on,"  correspond- 
ing with  the  prohibitions  regarding  things  that  are  to  be  "  put 
off"  (vv.  5 — 9).     The  opposition  between  the  old  man  and  the 


46  COLOSSIANS.  [iii.  12 — iv.  3 

new  man  set  forth  in  vv.  10,  11,  forms  a  suitable  transition  from 
the  negations  to  the  affirmations. 

12,  13  =  Eph.  iv.  2,  32,  v.  1,  2. — Boivels  of  mercies:  "heartfelt 
pity." 

14  =  Eph.  iv.  3. 

15  =  Eph.  iv.  4;  comp.  Eph.  ii.  16. — Peace  of  God:  The  best 
authorities  read,  "  peace  of  Christ." — In  one  lody :  Because  the 
tendency  of  Christ's  calling  was  to  establish  unity  in  the  world. 

16  =  Eph.  V.  19.  Eead,  "Let  the  word  of  Christ  dwell  in  you 
richly.  Teach  and  admonish  yourselves  [or  "one  another"]  in 
all  wisdom,  with  psalms  and  hymns  and  spiritual  songs,  and 
sing  of  his  grace  [lit.  "in  grace"]  unto  the  Lord  [or  "unto  God," 
according  to  the  best  MSS.]  in  your  hearts." 

17  =  Eph.  V.  20.  Contrast  to  the  distinctions  of  kinds  of  food 
made  by  the  false  teachers  (ii.  16,  21),  just  the  same  as  in  1  Cor. 
X.  29— 31. 

iii.  18 — iv.  1.   The  domestic  table  of  commandments. 
Instead  of  applying  themselves  to  the  pursuit  of  an  extra- 
ordinary and  romantic  sanctity,  the   Colossians  should  rather 
have  a  due  regard  for  the  social  relations  of  ordinary  life. 

18  =  Eph.  V.  22,  24.— [There  is  scarcely  any  MSS.  authority 
for  the  word  oton  in  this  verse.] 

19  =  Eph.  v.  25,  28. 

20  =  Eph.  vi.  1. 

21  =  Eph.  vi.  4. — Provoke  not :  i.  e.  by  excessive  strictness  that 
finds  fault  with  everything,  or  by  a  passionate  disposition  on  the 
part  of  the  parent. 

22 — 25  =  Eph.  vi.  5 — 8. — The  apostle  has  reasons  for  specially 
developing  this  particular  point  (comp.  Introduction  to  the  Epistle 
to  Philemon). 

25.  Receive  for  the  wrong:  "receive  the  wrong"  [so  lit.]. 

iv,  1  =  Eph.  vi.  9. 

iv.  2— 4  =  Eph.  vi.  18—20. 

A  request  for  this  intercession  strengthens  the  spiritual  bond 
between  the  apostle  and  his  readers. 

3.  Door  of  utterance  (lit.  "door  of  the  word"):  i.e.  opportunity 
of  preaching  the  gospel. 


iv.  5—17]  GOLOSSIANS.  47 

iv.  5,  6  =  Eph.  iv.  29,  v.  15,  16,  vi.  20. 
Eegulation  of  their  conduct  in  relation  to  the  Gentiles  by 
whom  they  are  surrounded. 

5.  Redeeming  the  time:  lit.  "buying  up  the  time"  [or  "oppor- 
tunity"].    See  note  on  Eph.  v.  16. 

6.  With  grace:  lit.  "in  grace,"  i.e.  agreeable,  gracious. — Sea- 
soned with  salt :  i.  e.  not  weakly  sentimental,  but  sharp  and  to 
the  point  (comp.  note  on  Mark  ix.  50). 

iv.  7—9. 

7.  8  =  Eph,  vi.  21,  22. — \^T%at  he  might  knoiv  your  estate :  Some 
of  the  best  MSS.  read,  "that  ye  might  know  our  estate"  (i.e. 
how  we  fare).] 

9.  Onesimus  is  the  run-away  slave  on  whose  account  the 
Epistle  to  Philemon  was  written  (see  Introd.  to  that  Epistle). 

iv.  10—18. 

10.  My  fellowprisoner:  Some  of  his  friends  shared  the  apostle's 
imprisonment  in  order  that  they  might  always  be  at  hand.  They 
took  turns  at  this  service,  and  hence  in  the  Epistle  to  Philemon 
we  find  Epaphras  spoken  of  as  "fellowprisoner"  (Philem.  23). — 
Mareus :  see  Vol.  1.  p.  45. — Sisters  so7i  should  be  " cousin." — 
Commandments  should  be  "  orders"  or  "  a  commission."  Probably 
he  was  to  make  a  collection,  or  something  of  that  kind,  in  Asia 
Minor. 

11.  The  majority  of  the  Jewish  teachers  who  were  residing  at 
the  place  of  the  apostle's  imprisonment  were  hostile  to  him  (see 
notes  on  Phil.  i.  15 — 18). — [These  07ily  probably  means  only  these 
among  the  Jews.] 

12.  Labouring  fervently :  "  wrestling." 

13.  A  great  zeal  Bho\x\di\)Q  "  much  labour." — Hierapolis:  Going 
westwards  from  Colossse,  Laodicea  lay  to  the  left  of  the  Lycus, 
and  Hierapolis  to  the  right.  The  circumstances  of  the  three 
neighbouring  cities  must  have  been  pretty  much  the  same. 

14.  LuJce :  see  Vol.  I.  p.  48. 

15.  Church:  "community." 

16.  The  Epistle  from  Laodicea :  i.  e.  the  Epistle  which  is  to  be 
sent  to  you  from  Laodicea.  As  it  is  not  called  an  Epistle  to 
Laodicea,  this  may  mean  the  circular  described  on  p.  2. 

17.  Archippus  must  have  been  one  of  the  presidents  of  the 
community  (comp.  Philem.  2). 


THE  FIRST  EPISTLE  TO  THE  THESSALONIANS. 


The  First  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians  is  pretty  generally 
admitted  to  be  the  oldest  written  document  of  Christianity,  and 
a  genuine  production  of  the  Pauline  spirit.  Apart  from  the  most 
recent  attacks  (see  note  on  i.  3),  the  objections  to  the  theory  of 
its  Pauline  authorship  are  principally  of  three  kinds  : 

(1)  The  vagueness  of  its  contents,  which,  except  in  one  pas- 
sage (iv.  13 — 18),  neither  present  us  with  any  prominent  doctrine, 
nor  have  any  clear  practical  aim. 

(2)  Its  dependence  upon  the  Epistles  to  the  Corinthians  and 
the  Book  of  Acts. 

(3)  The  reflection,  so  to  speak,  in  the  Epistle,  of  the  commu- 
nity to  which  it  is  addressed.  Many  passages  would  lead  us  to 
imagine  that  it  was  addressed  to  a  community  which  had  been 
founded  for  some  time,  whereas,  if  written  by  Paul,  it  must  have 
been  written  only  a  few  months  after  he  was  in  Thessalonica. 

1.  In  answer  to  the  first  of  these  objections,  it  may  be  urged, 
however,  that  although  the  doctrinal  contents  of  the  Epistle 
display  neither  the  strict  sequence  nor  the  wealth  of  thought, 
least  of  all  the  carefully-weighed  completeness,  of  the  compre- 
hensive Christian  system  which  is  found  in  the  four  great  Epis- 
tles of  Paul,  yet  the  Epistle  is  not  in  the  least  wanting  in  a  very 
definite  occasion  and  purpose.  These  are  found  in  the  external 
and  internal  troubles  which  endangered  the  Christian  life  of  the 
young  community  at  Thessalonica.  The  external  troubles  were 
the  attacks  of  the  Jews  of  the  city  upon,  the  gospel  of  the  re- 
demption, and  upon  the  personal   sincerity  of  him  who  had 


THE  FIRST  EPISTLE   TO    THE   THESSALONIANS.  49 

brought  it  to  them.  To  these  attacks — perverse  manifesta- 
tions of  synagogic  zeal,  which  followed  upon  the  track  of  the 
apostle,  persecuting  him  in  his  labours  even  as  far  as  Ber£ea 
(Acts  xvii.  13) — the  apostle  could  only  reply  in  writing  (i.  4 — 
ii.  16) ;  for  in  spite  of  his  very  warm  desire  to  renew  his  per- 
sonal relations  with  the  young  community,  the  accomplishment 
of  this  wish  was  for  a  time  denied  him,  and  he  was  compelled  to 
content  himself  with  sending  his  assistant  Timothy,  and  hearing 
the  vivid  accounts  which  he  brought  back. 

The  inner  occasion  of  the  Epistle  is  still  more  plain.  Paul's 
confident  proclamation  of  the  impending  return  of  Christ,  though 
it  had  had  a  deeply  moving  effect  upon  the  hearts  of  those  who 
had  listened  to  his  preaching  in  Thessalonica,  had  fallen  some- 
what strangely  upon  their  ears.  This  was  not  a  favourable  soil 
for  such  preaching.  Thessalonica  was  identical  with  the  ancient 
Halia  or  Thermae,  described  in  legend  as  the  proud  daughter  of 
a  fugitive  Trojan  colony.  In  the  time  of  Cassander,  husband 
of  Thessalonike  and  son-in-law  to  Philip  of  Macedonia,  it  had 
been  made  into  an  important  commercial  city  by  his  removal  of 
neighbouring  town  colonies  to  this  city  of  his  wife.  After  the 
battle  of  Pydna  (B.C.  168),  it  became  a  Eoman  city,  the  most 
important  and  active  in  the  province,  and  the  capital  of  the 
second  "  region"  or  district.  Inhabited  by  a  motley  population 
of  Jews,  Greeks  and  Eomans,  and  exposed  to  all  the  dissipation 
of  comparatively  extensive  intercourse  with  foreigners,  the  city 
was  given  up  to  the  frivolities  of  the  public  games  and  iniquities 
of  licentiousness,  so  that  Lucian  (in  the  second  century  A.D.) 
still  speaks  of  it  as  an  asylum  for  every  kind  of  moral  filthiness. 
During  the  civil  war  between  Pompey  and  Caesar,  it  was  the  seat 
of  the  Eoman  senate  and  the  party  of  Pompey ;  and  during  the 
civil  war  that  succeeded  this,  it  was  the  stronghold  of  Octavian 
in  Macedonia.  It  was  frequently  the  residence  of  Eoman  exiles 
of  rank  and  position,  as,  for  example,  at  one  time,  of  Cicero. 
Prom  all  these  causes  it  was  affected,  not  only  by  the  powerful 
influences  of  a  world-wide  commerce  and  imperial  political  inte- 

VOL.    III.  E 


50  THE  FIRST  EPISTLE  TO   THE  THESSALONIANS. 

rests,  but  also  by  the  more  subtle  influences  of  a  decaying  Eoman 
culture  and  philosophy.  This  certainly  was  no  favourable  arena 
for  a  man  of  Paul's  humble  position  and  appearance  to  contend 
in  with  his  proclamation  of  the  approaching  dominion  of  a 
crucified  Jew. 

Paul's  preaching,  however,  had  overcome  these  obstacles.  The 
exemplary  cheerfulness  of  his  character,  undestroyed  by  the 
grievous  experiences  of  Philippi  (ii.  2),  his  firm  and  confident 
faith  in  himself  and  his  European  mission,  and  the  sacred  power 
of  his  preaching  which  resulted  from  this  (i.  5),  had  secured  for 
him  and  for  his  words  natural  admiration  and  consequently  a 
favourable  reception  even  amidst  the  worldly,  idolatrous  and 
superficial  bustle  and  excitement  of  the  city  (i.  9).  The  touch- 
ing tenderness  of  his  care  for  the  little  community  he  had  suc- 
ceeded in  founding  (ii.  7),  the  value  of  which  was  increased  to 
them  by  the  unselfishness  of  his  labours  (ii.  9) — an  unselfishness 
rare  enough  in  the  busy  city  of  buyers  and  sellers — had  bound 
firmly  to  the  apostle  the  hearts  that  he  had  taken  by  storm. 

But  while  the  fiery  arrows  of  an  unshaken  religious  conviction 
had  aroused  in  some  the  burning  glow  of  Christian  expectation, 
and  smoothed  for  others,  who  were  slower  of  belief,  the  ways  of 
Christian  faith  and  joy,  the  involuntary  brevity  of  his  stay  did 
not  leave  him  sufficient  time  to  reconcile  the  enthusiasm  of  the 
former  with  the  regular  duties  of  earthly  life,  nor  to  bring  the 
growing  faith  of  the  latter  in  eternal  things  to  a  successful 
maturity.  No  long  time  elapsed,  after  he  was  compelled  to 
leave  them,  before  the  disadvantages  began  to  appear  which 
naturally  accompany  incomplete  and  hasty  arrangements.  And 
not  only  was  this  the  case  in  regard  to  the  external  arrangements 
of  the  community,  especially  the  relation  of  its  members  to  the 
elders,  but  also  their  Christian  faith  and  love  and  hope  betrayed 
the  want  of  apostolic  guidance.  Here,  a  moral  laxity  in  the  midst 
of  all  the  "prophetic"  religious  excitement,  justifying  itself  by  its 
expectation  of  the  immediate  approach  of  the  end  of  the  world 
(iv.  12) — there,  Macedonian  coldness,  which,  without  the  awaken- 


TEE  FIRST  EPISTLE   TO   THE   THESSALONIANS.  51 

ing  for  wliioh  only  the  apostle's  personal  presence  was  sufficient,  is 
unable  even  to  understand  the  powerful  influence  of  the  Christian 
spirit  and  "  despises  prophecy"  (v.  20) — and  finally,  in  addition 
to  all  this,  doubts  arising  as  to  the  truth  of  that  which  had 
formed  the  very  centre  of  Paul's  preaching  to  the  Thessalonians, 
doubts  in  regard  to  the  impending  advent  of  Jesus  Christ  and 
his  glorification  in  the  community,  which  was  to  be  brought  to 
him  in  the  joy  of  its  victory.  Since  Paul's  departure  they  have 
stood  by  open  graves.  Heaven  has  remained  silent.  Will  it 
open  ere  death  call  away  those  that  still  remain  ?  Is  there  no 
sign  when  the  Lord  shall  appear  ? 

Truly,  here  were  questions  and  matter  enough  to  move  the 
apostle  to  write  from  Athens  (A.D.  53  or  54)  to  the  community 
which  so  sorely  needed  his  fatherly  care  both  with  regard  to  its 
outward  and  its  inward  affairs,  that  he  might  bring  the  enthu- 
siastic to  soberness,  the  sober  to  the  communion  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  the  fearful  to  hope,  the  uncertain  to  clearness  of  vision, 
and  all — and  in  this  aim  all  the  other  aims  of  the  Epistle  are 
comprehended  in  a  higher  unity — all  to  blameless  readiness  for 
the  day  of  the  coming  of  our  Lord  (iii.  13),  when  the  apostle 
expects  to  bring  his  community  unto  Jesus  Christ  as  "  his  joy 
and  the  crown  of  his  glorying"  (ii.  19). 

2.  The  second  objection  that  has  been  raised  against  the  Pauline 
authorship  of  this  Epistle  is,  that  the  historical  framework  is  in 
agreement  with  the  Booh  of  Acts.  This  ceases  to  cause  any  sur- 
prise as  soon  as  we  call  to  mind  the  composition  of  that  book 
and  its  purpose,  as  described  in  the  introduction  to  it  (Vol.  I. 
pp.  257  sqq.).  If  the  undoubted  divergences  of  the  Book  of 
Acts  from  the  trustworthy  statements  of  the  Pauline  Epistles  are 
invariably  to  be  explained  by  the  endeavours  after  conciliation 
which  were  necessitated  solely  by  the  disputes  between  the 
Gentile-Christian  and  the  Jewish-Christian  parties,  and  which 
had  these  disputes  alone  in  view,  then  as  a  matter  of  course  the 
two  accounts  will  agree  wherever  these  disputes  do  not  exist,  as, 
for  example,  in  Thessalonica,  where  the  opponents  of  the  apostle 

e2 


52  THE  FinST  EPISTLE   TO    THE   THESSALONIANS. 

were  Jcivs  and  not  Jewish  Christians  (see  note  on  ii,  14 — 16). 
The  resemblance,  again,  both  in  ideas  and  language,  between 
certain  passages  in  this  Epistle  and  corresponding  passages  in 
the  other  Epistles  of  Paul  (comp.  1  Thess.  i.  5  with  1  Cor.  ii.  4 ; 
1  Thess.  i.  6  with  1  Cor.  xi.  1 ;  1  Thess.  i.  8  with  Eom.  i.  8 ; 
1  Thess.  ii.  4  sqq.  with  1  Cor.  ii.  4,  iv.  3  sq.,  ix.  15  sq.,  2  Cor. 
ii.  17,  V.  11),  are  not  more  considerable  or  more  striking  than 
the  parallels  which  are  found  in  the  four  confessedly  genuine 
Epistles  of  Paul.  Especially  are  many  points  of  contact  with 
the  Epistles  to  the  Corinthians  explained  by  the  similar  position 
and  constitution  of  the  communities  at  Thessalonica  and  at 
Corinth,  which,  in  spite  of  the  difference  in  regard  to  the 
apostle's  opponents  in  the  two  places,  present  themselves  at 
once  to  our  view. 

3.  The  third  of  the  objections  which  we  have  already  named 
is  based  mainly  upon  three  passages,  and  will  be  dealt  with  in 
the  commentary  on  the  Epistle  (see  notes  on  ii.  18,  iii.  10,  iv.  9 
sq.). 

4.  There  is  a  fourth  objection  that  has  been  urged  against  the 
authenticity  of  this  Epistle,  based  upon  the  unique  description  of 
the  return  of  Christ  (iv.  14  sqq.),  which  Paul  never  repeats  else- 
where. This,  however,  has,  from  the  first,  been  urged  with  very 
little  confidence.  It  is  perfectly  natural  that,  as  time  passed  on 
and  the  Pauline  expectation  of  the  coming  of  Christ  remained 
ever  unfulfilled,  this  expectation  should  become  more  and  more 
free  from  any  material  delineation  of  the  end  of  the  world  and 
the  beginning  of  the  new  world.  It  is  natural  that  such  a  change 
should  have  taken  place  between  the  dates  of  the  First  Epistle  to 
the  Thessalonians  and  the  Epistle  to  the  Komans ;  and  it  is  pre- 
cisely in  furnishing  us  with  this  powerful  material  description  of 
the  coming  of  Jesus  Christ  that  the  First  Epistle  to  the  Thessa- 
lonians proves  itself  to  be  an  early  primitive  Christian  document, 
forming  by  this  very  cliaracteristic  a  connecting  link  between  the 
full,  fresh,  primitive  Christian  life,  and  primitive  Christian  lite- 
rature with  its  growing  inclination  to  the  formation  of  Christian 


THE  FIRST  EnSTLE  TO    THE   TTTESSALONIANS.  53 

conceptions  in  tlie  place  of  the  various  existing  or  expected 
realities.  And,  moreover,  we  can  find  no  contradidioyis  between 
the  description  of  the  completion  of  Christ's  kingdom  in  this 
Epistle  and  the  descriptions  in  the  Epistles  to  the  Eomans  and 
the  Corinthians  (comp.  Eom.  xi.  15,  26,  30,  31  (see  Vol.  I.  p.  161), 
and  1  Cor.  xv.  12 — 28,  with  1  Thess.  iv.  14  sqq.).  And,  what  is 
most  important,  there  is  one  thing  at  least  even  here  which  is 
genuinely  Pauline,  viz.  the  connection  between  the  call  to  free 
life  in  the  fellowship  of  the  fiery  and  unquenchable  Spirit  of 
God,  and  the  exhortations  to  sober  work,  both  of  the  outer  and 
the  inner  man.  "The  children  of  day  must  stand  upon  the 
watch-tower  like  warriors  with  clear  and  undimmed  eyes ;  and 
only  thus  introduced  and  surrounded  by  powerful  appeals  to  the 
bold  and  warlike  spirit  of  his  Macedonians,  does  he  give  the 
answer  to  the  questions  concerning  the  last  things,  questions 
which  we  may  well  understand  had  caused  so  many  tears,  so 
many  dreams." 

The  line  of  thought  pursued  in  the  Epistle  is  indicated  in 
detail  in  the  notes.  Of  the  two  chief  sections,  the  first  (i.  4 — 
ii.  16)  is  defensive,  directed  against  the  apostle's  opponents  ;  the 
second  (iv.  1 — v.  22)  is  edifying,  didactic  and  hortatory,  and  is 
addressed  to  the  community  which  the  apostle  has  founded, 
which  is  to  await,  with  religious  fervour  and  moral  discipline, 
as  a  truly  receptive  community,  the  return  of  Christ. 

Between  these  two  sections,  confirming  the  first  and  preparing 
the  way  for  the  second,  is  a  third  part,  which  is  personal  (ii.  17 — ■ 
iii.  13).  He  speaks  of  the  fellowship  of  the  heart  which  unites 
the  apostle  with  the  community,  and  of  the  compensation  for 
his  disappointment  in  regard  to  that  renewal  of  their  personal 
intercourse  which  he  so  warmly  desires,  but  which  is  impossible 
to  him  ;  viz.  the  sending  of  Timothy. 


THE  FIEST  EPISTLE  TO  THE  THESSALONIANS. 


i.  1.  Opening  Salutation. 
Paul :  The  writer  does  not  add  here  his  apostolic  title,  as  he 
does  in  his  later  writings  (Gal.  i.  1 ;  1  Cor.  i.  1 ;  2  Cor.  i.  1 ; 
Eom.  i.  1).  Emphasis  laid  upon  this  rank  could  have  no  force 
as  against  Jewish,  but  only  against  Jewish-Christian  opponents. 
— Silvanus  and  Timotheus :  personally  known  to  the  readers  as 
Paul's  fellow-labourers  and  companions  (Acts  xvii.  10, 15).  [Here 
and  throughout  it  is  better  to  put  the  name  Timotheus  in  the 
familiar  English  form  "Timothy,"  as  in  2  Cor.  i.  1.] — Uoito  the 
church  of  the  Thessalonians  which  is  in  God  the  Father,  &c. :  It  is 
in  Him  and  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  that  the  community  has  its 
life.  They  are  the  power  that  brought  the  community  together 
and  keep  it  together. — From  God  our  Father  and  the  Lord  Jesus 
Christ :  These  words  are  not  found  in  the  best  MSS. 

i.  2,  3. 

Assurance  of  a  spiritual  communion  not  broken  by  local 
separation,  a  common  spiritual  life  carried  on  with  a  feeling  of 
gratitude  in  the  sight  of  God. 

3.  The  ground  of  the  thanksgiving  to  God. —  Tour  work  of 
faith:  the  ardent,  sacred  work  (see  ver.  6)  of  turning  to  the 
gospel. — Zahour  of  love:  such  loving  care  as  had  been  already 
called  forth  by  the  persecutions  of  the  Jewish  opponents  (Acts 
xvii.  10,  14,  15). — Patience  of  hope:  "Perseverance  in  hope,"  a 
special  matter  of  thankfulness,  considering  the  many  hardships 
tending  to  destroy  all  hope  (ver.  6). — With  the  triad  of  Faith, 
Love,  Hope,  comp.  1  Thess.  v.  8 ;  1  Cor.  xiii.  13. 

The  fact  that  the  words  "  work,"  "  labour,"  "  perseverance" 
(patience),  are  found  in  Eev.  ii.  2,  does  not  show  that  the  writer 
of  the  Epistle  copied  these  current  terms  from  the  Eevelation. 
Though  the  same  words  are  used,  the  historical  reference  in  the 
two  cases  is  so  different  and  indeed  contrary,  that  it  appears  a 


i.  3— ii.  2]  /.    TUESSALONIANS.  65 

very  artificial  interpretation  to  explain  this  verse  as  a  later 
attempt  to  combine  the  Jewish-Christian  expression  of  Eev.  ii.  2 
with  the  words  of  Paul  in  1  Cor.  xiii.  13  in  the  interests  of  the 
subsequent  reconciliation  of  Jewish  and  Pauline  Christianity. 

i.  4 — ii.  16.  First  Part. 
i.  4 — ii.  13.  Befutation  of  oMachs  made  tipon  the  apostle's  work. 
The  slanderous  suspicions  cast  upon  the  apostle's  work  (ii.  3) 
are  met  by  the  direction  of  the  attention  of  the  readers  (1)  to 
the  poioer  of  his  first  preaching  and  its  fruitful  influence  upon 
the  minds  of  the  Thessalonian  Christians  (i.  4 — 10) ;  (2)  to  the 
great  confidence  of  his  preaching,  the  secret  of  its  fruitful  effect 
(ii.  1,  2) ;  (3)  to  the  testimony  of  the  Holy  Spirit  as  the  main- 
spring of  his  preaching  (ii.  3 — 12).  The  whole  section  is  an 
elaboration  of  ver.  5. 

i.  4 — 10.  The  povjcr. 

The  historical  proof  of  the  power  of  his  preaching  rests,  on  the 
one  hand,  on  the  powerful  impression  made  by  the  gospel  of 
Christ  upon  the  susceptible  nature  of  the  Thessalonians  (vv.  4, 
5),  and,  on  the  other  hand,  upon  the  fruits  of  their  own  testimony 
and  missionary  zeal,  which,  in  spite  of  all  obstacles,  this  preach- 
ing had  produced  among  them  (vv.  6 — 10). 

4.  Eead,  "  Knowing,  brethren  beloved  by  God,  your  election," 
1.  e.  Being  firmly  convinced  of  your  election. 

6.  Folloivers  should  be  "imitators."  [Having  received,  &c.:  i.e. 
ye  were  like  us  in  receiving,  &c.     De  Wette.] 

7.  Ensamples :  "  an  ensaniple." 

8.  Sounded  out  should  be  "hath  sounded  out,"  i.e.  hath 
resounded  as  in  an  oft-repeated  echo. 

[9.  Shevj  of  us :  lit.  "  report  concerning  us."] 
[10.   JVJiich  delivered,  &c. :  lit.  "  who  delivereth  us  from  the 
wrath  which  is  coming.] 

ii.  1,  2.  The  confidence. 
But  all  that  has  now  been  mentioned  was  the  fruit  of  the 
unwavering  confidence  and  joy  which  filled  and  supported  the 
first  preaching  of  Paul  himself  among  them  in  the  face  of  all 
that  he  had  to  contend  with. 

[1.   Was  not  in  vain  should  be  "  hath  not  been  in  vain."] 

2.  But  even  after  that  should  be  "but  although." — We  had 


56  I.    THESSALONIANS.  [ii.  2 — 9 

sitffered  heforc :  see  Acts  xvi.  22  —  24. — Bold:  The  apostle 
believed  in  his  work  and  his  mission.  And  this  boldness  had 
good  ground,  as  explained  in  vv.  3 — 12. —  With  much  contention: 
"  with  much  conflict." 

ii.  3—12.  The  Holy  Spirit. 
The  ground  of  the  apostle's  boldness.     His  preaching  to  the 
Tliessalonians  had  been  in  the  Holy  Spirit. 

ii.  3,  4. 

The  motive  power  of  his  preaching  was  the  commission  from 
God,  not  the  apostle's  egotism,  still  less  any  desire  to  obtain 
popularity  among  men. 

Eead,  "  For  our  exhortation  (sprang)  not  from  sinful  error,  nor 
of  an  unclean  disposition,  nor  (did  it  exercise  itself)  in  deceitful 
thoughts;  but  as  we  have  been  found  of  God  worthy  to  be 
entrusted  with  the  gospel,  so,"  &c. 

An  incidental  indication  of  the  character  of  his  opponents  is 
here  to  be  found  (ver.  3)  in  their  own  accusations  against  the 
apostle.  They  brought  against  him  the  three-fold  reproach  of 
sinful  departure  from  the  worship  of  his  fathers,  of  insincere 
purposes  in  this  faithlessness,  and,  above  all,  of  crafty  self-seek- 
ing. 

ii.  5—8. 

But  God  himself  knows  the  motives  from  which  His  servant's 
preaching  arose,  and  bears  witness  to  Paul  in  his  conscience,  that 
the  spirit  of  his  proclamation  of  the  gospel  to  the  Thessalonians 
was  not  a  spirit  of  flattery  nor  of  covetousness  (ver.  5),  not  a 
spirit  of  ambition  (vv.  6,  7),  but  a  spirit  of  the  tenderest  love 
conceivable,  a  love  that  was  willing  to  impart  its  best  power,  and 
even  to  sacrifice  life  itself. 

5.  Eead,  "  For  we  never  went  about  with  flattering  words  [lit. 
were  in  a  flattering  word],  as  you  know,  nor  under  an  excuse  for 
covetousness." 

6.  When  we  might  have  been  burdensome  should  be  "  although 
we  might  have  appeared  with  great  authority." — The  apostles  of 
Christ :  "  Christ's  apostles." 

7.  JVurse  should  be  "  foster-mother." 

8.  Souls  :  "  lives." —  We^^e  dear :  "  became  dear." 

ii.  9—12. 
The   community  at   Thessalonica    itself   also   bears   witness 


ii.  9 — 14]  I.    THESSALONIANS.  57 

tliat  the  spirit  which  the  apostle  manifested  among  them  was  a 
spirit  of  unselfishness,  holiness,  righteousness,  and  blamelessness, 
a  spirit  of  exhortation,  of  consolation,  and  fatherly  admonition, 
working  with  one  aim  only ;  namely,  to  make  the  community  he 
had  founded  "  worthy  of  God." 

9.  For  labouring:  omit  "  for." — Because  we  would  not  he  charge- 
able :  "  that  we  might  not  be  burdensome." 

10.  Among  you  that  believe  should  be  "toward  you  as  toward 
believers/' 

[11.  How  tve  exhorted,  &c. :  lit.  "  exhorting  and  comforting  (or, 
according  to  De  Wette,  "encouraging")  and  conjuring  you."] 

[12.  Who  hath  called  you:  lit.  "  calling  you  ;"  i.e.  either  "who 
was  calling  you,"  referring  to  the  time  about  which  he  is  writing, 
or  possibly  more  generally  "  who  calleth  you."] 

ii.  13. 

This  verse  sums  up  at  once  the  whole  section  (i.  2 — ii.  12) 
which  states  the  grounds  of  gratitude  to  God  in  relation  to  the 
community  at  Thessalonica,  and  then  carries  us  on  to  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  enemies  against  which  the  community  itself  must 
guard  itself  with  special  care,  in  order  that  it  may  remain 
worthy  of  God's  call  to  His  kingdom  and  His  glory  (ver.  12.) — 
lleceived  the  word  of  God  which  ye  heard  of  us :  "  received  from 
us  the  word  of  the  divine  preaching." — As  it  is  in  truth  the  word 
of  God :  as  a  word  from  the  mouth  of  God,  as  in  truth  it  is  God 
himself  who  speaks  to  you  through  me.  The  peculiarity  of  the 
reception  which  Paul's  preaching  met  with  was  the  immediate 
belief  and  self-surrendering  enthusiasm.  Towards  the  word  of 
men  the  hearers  assume  an  attitude  of  trial,  doubt  and  judgment. 
(See  further.  Vol.  I.  p.  27.) 

ii.  14 — 16.  Tlie  opponents. 

The  apostle's  opponents  were  Jews,  who,  while  their  faithless 
fellow-countryman  was  still  in  Thessalonica,  had  already  made 
him  feel  all  the  vigorous  hatred  of  the  innovations  of  Chistianity 
which  the  Israelitish  national  religion  cherished,  and  who  now 
transferred  this  hatred  to  his  fellow-believers  in  the  city. — Fol- 
lowers should  be  "  imitators."  [They  became  like  the  churches 
in  Judea  in  suffering  persecution.  Comp.  i.  6.] — Countrymen: 
the  word  means  simply  fellow-inhabitants  of  Thessalonica,  mem- 
bers of  the  same  state,  without  any  distinction  between  those  of 


58  7.    THESSALONIANS.  [ii.  14 — 19 

Jewish  and  those  of  Gentile  descent ;  but  the  Jewish  nationality 
of  the  opponents  is  distinctly  indicated.  Their  contest  with  Paul 
and  his  community  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  internal  divisions 
of  Christianity,  but  rather  is  directed  against  Christianity  as  such, 
especially  against  its  proclamation  of  salvation  to  all  nations, 
and  its  overthrow  of  the  Jewish  privileges  of  salvation.  The 
picture  which  the  apostle  gives  of  them,  like  the  speech  of  the 
dying  Stephen  (Acts  vii.),  contains  at  the  same  time  the  refuta- 
tion of  their  attacks.  With  stern  rebuke  he  points  out  to  them, 
that  it  is  the  very  perfection  of  the  national  Jewish  religion  that 
Christ  has  brought,  and  that  their  contention  against  him  is  but 
rage  against  their  own  flesh. 

16.  For  the  lorath  is  come  upon  them  (comp.  i.  10 ;  Luke 
xxi.  23).  Already  in  the  signs  of  the  approaching  political  end 
of  the  Jews,  the  apostle  foresees  their  destruction. — To  the  utter- 
most :  i.  e.  to  its  full  extent,  so  that  the  divine  wrath  can  dis- 
charge itself  fully  and  completely  against  the  rebellious  people 
without  restraint. 

ii.  17 — iii.  13.  Personal  Section  of  the  Epistle  between  the 
first  and  second  2>cirts. 

With  such  opponents  to  contend  against,  when  Satan  had 
twice  frustrated  the  apostle's  wish  and  resolve  to  visit  the  Thes- 
salonians  in  person,  it  was  desirable  to  obtain  information  con- 
cerning the  state  of  the  community  by  means  of  a  trustworthy 
messenger.  He  gives  thanks  for  the  good  behaviour  of  the 
community, 

ii.  17—20. 

The  apostle's  longing  for  personal  intercourse  with  the  com- 
munity that  he  had  founded. 

18.  [We  would  have  come:  better,  "we  wished  to  come."]  — 
There  is  no  valid  reason  why  the  fact  of  Paul's  twice  resolving 
to  return  to  Thessalouica  should  be  supposed  to  involve  a  longer 
intermediate  period  than  the  months  which  intervened  between 
his  departure  thence  and  the  composition  of  this  Epistle, 

19.  [Rejoicing:  strictly,  "boasting." — Even  ye:  Some  trans- 
late, "  ye  also,"  i.  e.  are  not  ye  also,  as  well  as  others,  our  hope 
and  joy  ?  &c. — Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ:  the  best  MSS.  omit  the 
word  "  Christ."] 


iii.  1—7]  /.    THESSALONIANS.  59 

iii.  1—5. 

The  substitute  for  Paul's  personal  visit,  which  was  impossible; 
viz.  the  sending  of  Timothy. 

1.  Wlierefore,  &c.,  should  be  "Wherefore  we  have  not  borne 
it  any  longer,  and  have  resolved  to  remain  at  Athens  alone." — 
At  Athens  alone :  in  such  grievous  circumstances,  in  a  fruitful 
nursery  of  heathen  culture  and  mis-culture,  with  nothing  but 
his  simple  preaching  to  set  against  all  the  seductive  brilliancy  of 
antiquity,  and  alu7ie.  Stress  is  laid  upon  the  sacrifice  which  he 
made  in  sending  away  for  a  time  his  tried  helper,  while  engaged 
in  a  work  for  the  kingdom  of  Christ,  so  peculiarly  difficult,  and 
requiring  every  possible  assistance. 

[2.  Minister  of  God  and  our  fellowlaboiirer  in  the  gospel,  &c. : 
One  of  the  oldest  MSS.  has  "  Fellowlabourer  of  God  in  the 
gospel,"  &c. ;  some  have  "  minister  of  God  in  the  gospel,"  •&c. 
The  reading  of  the  A,  V,  probably  dates  from  the  eighth  or  ninth 
century.] 

2,  3.  And  to  comfort  you,  &c.,  should  be,  "  And  to  exhort  you 
for  the  sake  of  your  faith,  that  no  man  be  beguiled  in  these 
afflictions,"  i.e.  that  no  one  should  weakly  yield  to  such  oppres- 
sion (ii.  3,  14—16). 

[4.  Tliat  we  shoidd  suffer  tribulation :  better,  "  that  we  should 
have  to  be  afflicted"  (the  verb  being  of  the  same  root  as  the 
word  translated  "  afflictions'.'  in  ver.  3).] 

5.  [Forbear  should  be  ^'bear  it;"  see  note  on  ver.  1.] — Lest,  &c., 
should  be  "  Whether  perhaps  the  tempter  had  tempted  you,  and 
our  labour  might  be  made  vain." 

iii.  6—13. 

The  accounts  which  Timothy  brings,  favourable  on  the  whole, 
move  the  apostle  to  give  joyful  thanks  to  God,  but  only  increase 
his  longing  to  visit  them  again  in  person,  that  they  might 
strengthen  and  purify  one  another  for  a  vigorous  Christian  pre- 
paration for  the  second  coming  of  Christ.  So  long  as  the 
apostle's  way  does  not  bring  him  visibly  into  their  midst,  may 
the  invisible  power  of  holy  love  prepare  their  hearts  for  the  day 
of  the  Lord. 

6.  Charity:  "love." 

7.  Eead,  "Therefore,  brethren,  we  were  comforted  on  your 


60  /.   TIIESSALONIANS.  [iii.  7 — iv.  4 

account,  concerning  all  our  necessity  and  affliction,  through  your 
faith/' 

10.  Perfect  that  ivhicli  is  lacking  in  your  faith  (lit.  "  the  defi- 
ciencies of  your  faith"):  i.e.  complete  that  which  is  still  wanting 
to  your  faith.  These  words  indicate  plainly  a  community 
recently  founded,  the  Christian  training  of  which  is  still  incom- 
plete. 

11.  "  But  may  He,  God  our  Father,  and  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ, 
direct  our  way  unto  you."  [On  the  phrase  God  himself  and  our 
Father,  see  note  on  Gal.  i.  4. — The  best  MSS.  read  "  our  Lord 
Jesus,"  omitting  "  Christ."] 

[13.  God  even  our  Father:  see  note  on  Gal.  i.  4. — Christ 
omitted  in  the  best  MSS.,  as  in  ii.  19,  iii.  11. — Saints:  strictly, 
"holy  ones,"  understood  by  some  commentators  to  mean  angels. — 
Some  of  the  oldest  MSS.  have  "  Amen"  at  the  end  of  the  verse.] 

iv.  1 — V.  22.     Second  Part. 
Separate  exhortations  to  the  establishment  of  a  genuine  Chris- 
tian church  for  the  reception  of  the  Lord  at  his  second  coming. 

iv.  1,  2. 
Eead,  "Furthermore  then  we  beseech  you,  brethren,  and 
exhort  you,  in  the  Lord  Jesus,  as  ye  have  received  from  us  the 
right  manner  of  conduct  and  well-pleasing  unto  God  [lit.  "  how 
ye  ought  to  walk  and  to  please  God,"  after  which  some  ancient 
MSS.  add,  "as  indeed  ye  do  walk"],  that  so  ye  abound  more  and 
more." — Abound  more  and  tnore :  "  increase,"  viz.  in  thus  con- 
ducting yourselves  so  as  to  please  God. 

iv.  3—8. 
Admonition  against  unchastity  and  covetousness,  the  two  vices 
which  were  regarded  as  the  chief  vices  of  heathenism.    In  Piom. 
i.  29  they  are  mentioned  together  as  the  guilt  of  the  Gentiles,  as 
also  Eph.  iv.  17,  19 ;  Col.  iii.  5 ;  comp.  2  Pet.  ii.  14. 

3.  This :  i.  e.  sanctification,  first  in  the  relations  of  the  sexes 
(3^5),  and  secondly  in  the  business  relations  of  every-day  life  (6). 
In  both  these  it  is  right  to  keep  oneself  pure  and  holy  by  a  high 
regard  for  honour  and  the  property  of  one's  brethren  (7,  8). 

4,  5.  Eead,  "  That  every  one  of  you  may  know  how  to  win 
his  wife  in  sanctification  and  honour,  not  in  passion  of  sensual 
desire,  as  the  Gentiles  which  know  not  God." — The  Christian 


iv.  4—10]  /.    THESSALONIANS.  61 

must  not  be  guided,  in  his  choice  of  a  wife,  by  blind  sensual 
passion,  but  rather,  as  becomes  a  man  striving  after  salv^ation, 
he  must  seek  her  in  honour,  i.e.  with  reverence  for  the  woman, 
who  is  to  be  regarded,  not  in  heathen  fashion  as  an  object  of 
lust,  but  as  a  child  of  God  who  in  Christ  is  by  birth  the  equal 
of  man. — There  is  no  sign  here  of  the  apostle's  ascetic  renuncia- 
tion of  marriage  altogether,  which  we  find  later  in  the  Epistles 
to  the  Corinthians. 

6.  That  no  mail  go  hcyond  and  defraud  his  brother  in  any  matter: 
i.e.  "that  no  man  disregard  his  brother,  or  injure  him  in  busi- 
ness."— [All  such:  i.e.  "all  such  things."] 

7.  [Hath  not  called  us:  strictly,  did  not  call  us."] — Unto  holi- 
ness should  be  "in  sanctification"  [the  same  word  as  in  ver.  3]. 

[8.  Eead,  "  who  giveth  his  Holy  Spirit  unto  you."] 

iv.  9—12. 

The  genuine  Christian  contrast  to  the  vices  of  the  Gentiles, 
viz.  hrotherly  love. 

9,  10.  Licrease  7iiore  and  more :  viz.  in  brotherly  love.  [The 
word  here  rendered  "  increase"  is  the  same  that  the  apostle  uses  in 
iii.  12,  iv.  1,  and  is  there  rendered  "abound."]  The  exhortation 
itself  is  preceded  by  the  express  recognition  of  the  proofs  which 
the  Thessalonians  have  already  given  of  their  Christian  brotherly 
love,  that  thus  the  hearts  of  the  readers  may  be  the  more  inclined 
to  observe  the  exhortation  which  follows.  On  other  occasions 
also  Paul  introduces  solemn  exhortations  in  a  similar  manner 
(comp.  V.  i. ;  2  Cor.  ix.  1). — The  Greek  word  in  ver.  9,  which  is 
rendered  "  taught  of  God,"  does  not  occur  elsewhere  in  the  New 
Testament.  It  refers  to  the  divine  teaching  which  they  have 
borne  within  themselves  since  their  heart  received  the  gospel, 
the  "word  of  God"  (ii.  13). — The  time  between  the  departure 
of  the  apostle  and  the  writing  of  this  letter  was  certainly 
sufficient  for  them  to  win  praise  for  Christian  brotherly  love 
within  the  still  very  narrow  circle  of  the  Christians  of  Mace- 
donia (vv.  9,  10).  At  the  same  time  it  was  likewise  sufficient 
to  render  an  exhortation  to  a  peaceful,  quiet  and  active  conduct 
of  life  advisable.  Moreover,  the  praise  is  limited  by  the  wish 
which  the  apostle  adds,  that  the  brotherly  love  which  they  have 
manifested  towards  their  fellow- christians  of  Macedonia  may 
increase.     And  the  necessitv  of  such  an  exhortation  as  that  of 


62  I.    THESSALONIANS.  [iv.  10 — 13 

vv.  11,  12,  is  fully  explained  by  the  fact  that  the  apostle  had 
not  been  able  to  complete  in  peace  even  the  foundation,  mate- 
rially and  spiritually,  of  the  life  of  the  Christian  community  at 
Thessalonica,  but  had  been  compelled  unwillingly  to  withdraw 
from  a  work  that  was  in  every  respect  unfinished. 

iv.  13— V.  11. 
Exhortation  to  a  believing  confidence  and  active  watchfulness 
in  regard  to  the  second  coming  of  Christ. 

iv.  13—18. 
The  first  part  of  this  exhortation  to  a  right  doctrine  is  intended 
to  arouse  hope  and  comfort  in  regard  to  the  last  things.  The 
predominant  sentiment  of  the  true  Christian  is  the  very  opposite 
of  sorrow,  which  is  the  secret  but  prevailing  sentiment  of  heathen- 
ism, and  has  its  foundation  in  the  despair  of  the  heathen  with 
regard  to  an  eternal  blessed  life.  Perhaps  by  those  who  are 
without  hope  the  apostle  understands  also  his  own  .special  oppo- 
nents in  Thessalonica,  the  Jews,  who  were  likewise  unable  to 
draw  from  their  sacred  documents  a  full  and  joyous  faith  in  the 
eternal  existence  of  the  soul. 

iv.  13 — 15.  The  Jiopefor  tJwse  that  are  fallen  asleep. 

[13.  Others :  strictly,  "  the  rest." — 14.  Which  sleep  in  Jesus  : 
strictly,  "  which  have  fallen  asleep  through  Jesus,"  or,  perhaps, 
with  a  different  'punctuation,  "  them  also  that  are  fallen  asleep 
will  God  through  Jesus  bring  with  him."  Some  of  the  best  MSS. 
have  "which  fall  asleep"  (or  perhaps  "are  sleeping"). — 15.  By 
the  word  of  the  Lord :  strictly,  "  by  word  of  the  Lord." — Prevent : 
here  used  in  the  old  sense  of  "  outstrip,"  "  go  before."] 

13.  Concerning  them  which  are  asleep  :  strictly,  "  have  fallen 
asleep,"  viz.  in  Christ.  Here  the  apostle  deals  only  with  those 
Christians  belonging  to  the  community  at  Thessalonica  who  have 
already  fallen  asleep,  or  are  still  falling  asleep  before  the  day  of 
the  Lord.  In  vv.  14 — 16,  on  the  other  hand  ("the  dead  in 
Christ"),  he  refers  to  the  whole  company  of  the  brethren  who 
.have  died  before  the  second  coming  of  Christ. — In  the  very 
expression  "  asleep,"  the  belief  in  the  awakening  is  assumed. 
This  beautiful  metaphor  has  its  Christian  source  in  the  view  of 


iv.  13— V.  4]  7.    TIIESSALOXIANS.  63 

Jesus  himself,  of  which  we  have  good  evidence.     Matt.  ix.  24 ; 
Mark  v.  39 ;  Luke  viii.  52  ;  John  xi.  11. 

14,  15.  The  firm  foundation  of  our  belief  in  the  eternal  future 
of  the  believing  soul  is  laid  in  two  facts,  on  which  the  salvation  of 
Christians  generally,  and  of  humanity,  hangs,  viz.  the  death  and 
resurrection  of  Jesus,  and  in  the  indestructible  communion  of 
the  believers  with  their  Saviour,  which,  as  an  article  of  faith, 
is  here  expressed  from  the  warmth  of  the  apostle's  heart,  and  in 
his  later  Epistles,  especially  the  Epistle  to  the  Eomans,  is  esta- 
blished and  more  fully  developed  in  regard  to  its  consequences  in 
the  interests  of  apostolic  doctrine.  Of  the  resurrection  of  Jesus, 
Paul  has  obtained  a  most  vivid  perception  through  the  abundance 
of  the  personal  revelations  of  the  Master  in  the  course  of  his 
conversion  and  his  further  preparation  for  the  office  of  apostle  to 
the  Gentiles.  Whatever  the  apostle  has  experienced  in  the 
visions  of  Christ  which  have  been  granted  to  him,  he  is  absolutely 
certain  of  as  the  fullest  spiritual  truth.  It  is  to  him  a  tvord 
of  the  Lord  (ver.  15) ;  for  we  can  scarcely  understand  by  this 
expression  a  saying  uttered  by  Jesus  when  on  earth,  and  handed 
down  by  oral  tradition.  How  could  the  Evangelists  in  their 
detailed  accounts  of  the  future  of  the  kingdom  of  Christ  (Matt. 
xxiv.  XXV. ;  Mark  xiii. ;  Luke  xvii.  xxi.)  have  passed  over  any 
such  sayings  of  Jesus  as  these  ?  For  what  is  said  in  v.  2,  we  find 
a  parallel  in  the  words  of  Jesus  in  Luke  xii.  39,  but  that  is  all. 

iv.  16,  17.  The  day  of  the  Lord. 

Comp.  the  description  in  1  Cor.  xv.  23  sqq.,  51  sqq.,  and  also 
Eom.  xi.  15,  26,  30  sqq. 

16.  With  a  shoict,  &c.,  should  be  "  with  a  given  signal,  at  the 
voice  of  an  archangel  and  at  the  sound  of  the  trumpet  of  God." 

V.  1—11. 

The  impossibility  of  ascertaining  the  exact  time  of  the  return 
/3f  Jesus  (comp.  not  only  Luke  xii.  39,  but  also  Eev.  xvi.  15), 
renders  doubly  necessary  the  intense  watchfulness  which  has 
already  found  an  inner  foundation  in  the  unbroken  intercourse 
of  the  Christian  with  his  Master  (ver.  11). 

2.  Perfectly  should  be  "  exactly." 

[3.  For :  Some  good  MSS.  have  "  but ;"  others  omit.] 

[4.  That  that  day,  &c.:  i.e.  "that  the  day  (not  ''that  day"), 


64  J.    THESSALONIANS.  [v.  4—23 

like  a  thief,  should  take  you  by  surprise."  Lachmann,  with  two 
of  the  oldest  MSS.,  reads,  "  That  the  day  should  take  you,  like 
thieves,  by  surprise."] 

[5.  The  best  MSS.  have,  "  For  ye  are,"  &c.,  connecting  this 
verse  immediately  with  the  preceding.] 

[6.   Others :  strictly,  "  the  rest."] 

[8.  Putting  on  :  "  having  put  on."] 

9.  ITath  not  appointed  us  to:  i.e.  "hath  not  intended  us  for." 

11.  Comfort  yourselves  together:  "exhort  one  another." 

v.  12—15. 

Exhortation  to  an  orderly  Christian  social  life. 

13.  Among  yourselves :  "with  them"  [some  of  the  best  MSS. 
have  one  reading,  and  some  the  other]. — 14.  Warn  them  that 
are  unruly  should  be  "  admonish  the  disorderly." — [15.  Among 
yourselves :  strictly,  "  to  one  another."] 

V.  16—22. 

This  Christian  social  life  (vv.  12 — 15)  must  be  founded  upon 
a  truly  Christian  inner  life.  The  signs  of  this  are  :  rejoicing  both 
in  unceasing  prayer  and  in  thanksgiving  (16 — 18);  a  burning  yet 
clearly-felt  inspiration  through  the  intercourse  of  the  soul  with 
Christ  in  faith,  while  awaiting  his  speedy  return  from  heaven 
(19,  20) ;  and  at  the  same  time  the  careful  testing  of  the  religious 
judgment  within,  and  of  the  moral  conduct  without  (21,  22). 

[16.  Uvermore :  "always."] 

17.  Pray  loithout  ceasing :  JSTo  extravagant  form  of  speech  but 
the  absolutely  sincere  wish  of  the  apostle.  What  he  means  is 
the  unceasing,  uniform  direction  of  the  heart  to  God  in  Christ 
even  in  the  midst  of  all  the  external  distractions  of  that  work- 
day labour  which  he  will  not  put  aside  in  favour  of  idleness, 
but  on  the  contrary  requires  of  others  and  recommends  by  his 
own  example. 

[20.  Prophesyings :  see  notes  on  Rom.  xii.  6  ;  1  Cor.  xiv.] 

V.  23 — 28.    Conclusion. 

v.  23,  24. 

Benediction  exactly  as  in  iii.  13,  but  with  an  indication  of  the 
ground  of  the  hope  of  God's  blessing. 

[23.  And  I  pray  God,  &c.:  strictly,  "and  may,"  &c. —  Unto  the 
coming :  strictly,  "  in  the  coming."] 


V.  25— 28]  7.    THESSALONIANS.  65 

V.  25—27. 

The  confirmation  of  the  hearty  fellowship  between  the  apostle 
and  the  community.  On  their  side  he  begs  for  their  intercessions 
with  God ;  and  on  his  side  he  sends  them  with  his  holy  greeting 
a  visible  written  sign  of  his  intercessions  and  care  for  them ; 
and  expresses  an  earnest  desire,  that  every  member  of  the  com- 
munity may  be  made  aware  of  it. 

[27.  Charge:  strictly,  "adjure." — Holy:  omitted  in  most  of 
the  old  MSS.] 

V.  28.  Parting  salutation. 

[Amen:  see  note  on  iii.  13.] 

Suhscriptio7i. 
[The  subscription  is  found  in  one  of  the  oldest  MSS.  as  it 
stands  here,  but  the  others  have  simply  "  To  the  Thessalonians," 
or  "  1  to  the  Thessalonians  is  completed,  2  to  the  Thessalonians 
begins."] 


VOL.  III. 


THE  SECOND  EPISTLE  TO  THE  THESSALONIANS. 


The  Second  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians  in  its  present  form 
can  scarcely  be  by  the  writer  of  the  First  Epistle.  What  is  most 
characteristic  of  each  of  the  two  Epistles  is  its  own  peculiar 
doctrine  of  the  "  Day  of  the  Lord,"  and  it  is  in  this  very  matter 
that  they  contradict  one  another.  The  First  Epistle  teaches  most 
emphatically  that  that  day  will  come  as  a  thief  in  the  night, 
suddenly,  at  a  time  that  cannot  be  calculated,  taking  all  by  sur- 
prise. The  Second  Epistle,  on  the  other  hand,  gives  a  very  careful 
and  comparatively  circumstantial  account  of  the  sure  signs  by 
which  its  appearance  may  be  known  (ii.  3 — 12).  And  these  tokens 
of  the  approaching  return  of  Christ,  the  Paul  of  the  Second  Epistle 
to  the  Thessalonians  is  supposed  to  have  described  orally  when 
he  was  present  with  them  and  first  founded  the  community ! 
(ii.  5).  If  they  had  been  thus  instructed,  how  can  we  explain 
the  vacillating  uncertainty  of  the  Thessalonians,  and  how  was  it 
possible  for  Paul  to  give  them  afterwards  the  kind  of  instruction 
which  we  find  in  the  First  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians,  at  the 
beginning  of  the  fifth  chapter  ?  (vv.  1,  2).  The  very  opposite  of 
that  which  the  Paul  of  2  Thess.  is  supposed  to  have  told  his 
readers,  is  in  the  First  Epistle  assumed  as  the  Pauline  doctrine 
concerning  the  last  things,  viz.  the  absence  of  all  certain  signs  of 
the  return  of  the  Lord. 

If,  therefore,  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  apostle  Paul 
was  the  writer  of  our  "First"  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians,  then 
at  the  outset  the  non-Pauline  origin  of  the  Second  Epistle  would 


THE  SECOND  EPISTLE   TO    TEE   THESSALONIANS.  07 

be  very  probable.  In  addition  to  this,  there  are,  however,  two 
other  reasons  for  doubting  that  it  was  written  by  Paul. 

(1.)  The  thanksgiving  (i.  3 — 10)  contains  ideas  of  the  righ- 
teousness of  God  and  its  relation  to  the  sufferings  of  the  Chris- 
tians, to  which  we  may  vainly  seek  to  find  any  parallel  among 
the  well-authenticated  ideas  of  the  apostle.  That  the  Christians 
will  one  day  be  rewarded  (i.  6)  for  the  furtherance  of  the  king- 
dom of  God,  to  which  they  contribute  by  their  sufferings  (i.  5),  is 
(in  spite  of  2  Cor.  iv.  17,  18)  scarcely  a  genuine  thought  of  the 
man  who  elsewhere  recognizes  only  one  ground  of  salvation — viz. 
God's  free  grace — the  man  who  gave  to  his  doctrine  of  the  redemp- 
tion its  peculiar  point  by  vigorously  rejecting  each  and  every 
human  merit  in  the  sight  of  God  (Eom.  iii.  24,  ix.  12  sq.,  xi.  6,  &c.), 
and  so  laid  the  foundation  for  the  conception  on  the  part  of  his 
disciple  which  appears  in  connection  with  the  words  of  the  Lord 
in  Luke  xvii.  10.  Here,  on  the  other  hand,  we  have  rather  the 
eclio  of  Matthew  (Matt.  v.  12)  and  his  idea,  which  approaches 
more  nearly  to  that  of  the  Jewish  righteousness  by  works.  Again, 
that  the  reward  which  God  will  give  to  His  own  on  the  day  of 
the  revelation  of  Christ,  should  be  spoken  of  as  the  "calling" 
(i.  11)  of  which  God  will  one  day  count  them  worthy,  is  difficult 
to  understand  from  the  Pauline  point  of  view.  In  Paul's  view, 
the  calling,  so  far  as  it  is  regarded  not  as  the  original  counsel  of 
the  divine  grace  before  the  beginning  of  time,  but  as  an  event 
in  the  life  of  the  individual,  is  always  the  hegi7ining  of  the  Chris- 
tian life,  the  calling  into  the  community  of  Christ  and  those 
who  believe  in  him  (Eom.  i.  7  ;  1  Cor.  i.  2,  26,  vii.  15 ;  1  Thess. 
ii.  12;  comp.  Eph.  iv.  1,  4;  Col.  iii.  15),  and  not  the  goal  to  be 
pursued. 

(2.)  Quite  decisive,  however,  is  the  completely  un-Pauline 
character  of  the  whole  system  of  conceptions  and  ideas  which 
pervades  the  chief  division  of  the  Epistle  (ii.  1 — 12).  The  idea 
of  the  "  man  of  sin,"  who  must  first  be  completely  revealed  before 
the  day  of  the  Lord  can  come,  is  as  alien  to  the  whole  Pauline 
literature  as  the  picture  of  that  which  " 'withholdeth"  (ii.  6,  7), 

F  2 


68  THE  SECOND   EPISTLE   TO    THE   THESSALONIANS. 

which  is  represented  now  as  a  thing,  and  now  as  a  person  that 
hinders  the  end  of  this  world,  and  must  be  removed  before  the 
kingdom  of  God  can  attain  its  realization.  At  the  same  time, 
these  two  ideas  are  marked  by  such  clearness  and  originality,  that 
if  the  apostle  Paul  had  ever  taught  them,  and,  further  than  that, 
actually  committed  them  to  writing,  he  must  necessarily  have 
recurred  to  them  in  treating  of  the  same  subject  afterwards,  either 
for  the  sake  of  explaining  or  correcting  them.  A  simple  silence 
concerning  such  earlier  apostolic  teachings  would  have  been  quite 
impossible  in  such  passages  as  1  Cor.  xv.  23  sqq.;  Eom.  xi.  15, 
26,  31,  32  (see  Vol.  II.  pp.  160  sq.,  235  sq.).  This  very  section, 
however  (ii.  1 — 13),  shows  that  our  Epistle  has  a  very  definite 
connection  with  another  and  a  very  un-Pauline  book,  viz.  the 
Revelation  of  John.  In  both  alike  (see  Introd.  to  Eev.)  we  find 
the  waiting  for  the  speedy,  if  not  immediately  impending,  appear- 
ance of  the  Lord  (Eev.  i.  3,  the  time  is  at  hand ;  Eev.  xxii.  20,  I 
come  quickly;  comp.  2  Thess.  i.  7,  ii.  2);  in  both  alike  we  find  the 
expectation  of  grievous  times  heforc  the  return  of  Christ,  when 
hostility  to  Christ  (the  "  falling  away,"  2  Thess.  ii.  3)  will  gather 
up  all  its  strength;  Satan,  in  a  visible  bodily  form  (Eev.  xii.  3  sq.), 
will  venture  upon  a  last  attempt  to  deify  himself  and  seduce  the 
world  and  subject  it  to  himself  (2  Thess.  ii.  3,  4 ;  Eev.  xiii.  14, 
xvi.  13);  but  the  Lord  will  victoriously  smite  to  the  ground  the 
whole  power  of  sin  gathered  up  in  this  human  incarnation  of 
Satan,  and  establish  a  new  kingdom  of  glory  for  them  that  are 
his  (2  Thess.  ii.  8—11 ;  Eev.  xvii.  8,  11). 

The  intimate  connection  with  the  Eevelation  prevents  us  also 
from  putting  the  origin  of  the  Second  Epistle  to  the  Thessalo- 
nians  at  a  much  later  date — in  the  time  of  Trajan — as  some  have 
thought  we  should  do.  This  would  be  more  than  a  generation 
later,  at  a  time  when  just  the  above-mentioned  most  characteristic 
ideas  of  the  Eevelation  had  undergone  a  complete  transformation 
in  the  ordinary  Christian  mind — when  especially  the  idea  of  a 
comprehension  of  evil  in  a  single  individual  j'^crson  who  was  to 
come  (the  Antichrist)  had  disappeared,  and  its  place  had  been 


THE  SECOND  EPISTLE   TO    TEE  THESSALONIANS.  69 

taken  by  the  idea  oimany  deceivers  and  Antichrists,  or  the  s2Tirit 
of  Antichrist  that  was  already  present  (1  Tim.  iv.  2  ;  2  Pet.  ii.  1 ; 
1  John  ii.  18,  iv.  3 ;  2  John  7). 

But  no  doubt  a  change  in  the  figures  of  the  Apocalypse  had 
already  occurred.  The  name  of  Antichrist  no  longer  appears, 
and,  what  is  most  important,  a  neiv  figure  has  appeared  upon 
the  scene,  he  who  (or  that  which)  "  withholdeth  ;"  and  also,  as  it 
seems,  a  new  circumstance,  which  is  a  sign  of  a  new  period  that 
has  been  reached,  viz.  "the  mystery  of  ungodliness"  is  already 
actually  being  realized  (ii.  7). 

If,  then,  the  Eevelation  was  written  before  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem,  the  points  of  resemblance  between  it  and  2  Thess.  ii. 
1 — 12  will  lead  us  to  fix  the  date  of  the  Epistle  near  the  great 
catastrophe  of  the  year  70  A.D.,  while  the  additions  which  are 
here  made  to  the  apocalyptic  picture  and  the  corrections  of  it 
indicate  some  period  after  that  year.  The  idea  of  the  "  adver- 
sary" is  as  clear  and  joowerful  as  ever,  but  he  no  longer  bears 
his  classical  name  of  Antichrist.  For  the  very  name  which  had 
hitherto  been  associated  with  that  of  Antichrist  in  the  ideas  of 
Christendom  had  convicted  the  expectation  of  Christendom  of 
falsity.  Nero  did  not  re-appear.  The  mystery  of  ungodliness, 
though  not  fully  revealed,  is  already  fully  realized  and  active 
(ii.  7).  Jerusalem  is  destroyed,  and  Christendom,  this  "  temple 
of  God"  (see  note  on  ii.  4),  is  threatened  with  the  desecration  of 
its  holy  of  holies  by  the  abomination  of  the  man  of  sin  who  lusts 
after  divine  honours  (ii.  4).  Nevertheless,  there  is  still  something 
that  withholds  this  fulfilment,  viz.  the  Eoman  empire ;  and  one 
who  embraces  this  withholding  power  in  himself,  viz.  the  Eoman 
emperor,  has  now  by  his  victory  over  Jerusalem  established  and 
confirmed  once  more  (and  in  the  belief  of  the  writer  for  the  last 
time)  his  infamous  sway  over  the  people  of  the  Lord. 

Thus  the  chief  passage  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians, 
literally  and  historically  explained,  secures  for  it  an  imjoortant 
place  in  New-Testament  contemporary  history.  It  would  thus 
appear  as  a  letter  of  consolation  addressed  to  the  whole  of  Chris- 


70  THE  SECOND  EPISTLE  TO    THE   THESSALOXIANS. 

tendom  in  one  of  its  most  serious  crises,  a  call  to  confidence 
in  times  of  such  bitter  disappointment  as  Christian  hearts  had 
never  experienced  since  the  death  of  the  Master,  a  warning 
to  be  sober  amid  all  lofty  expectations  (ii.  2),  to  be  stead- 
fast in  Christian  conviction  and  apostolic  doctrine  (ii.  15),  to 
be  strictly  moral  in  word  and  deed  (ii.  17),  and  to  maintain  a 
well-ordered  life  in  the  community  (iii.  6 — 15),  and  all  this  at  a 
period  wliich  was  the  reverse  of  favourable  to  these  particular 
virtues,  and  rendered  these  very  exhortations  so  desirable.  Not- 
withstanding all  that  has  been  said,  it  is  undeniable  that  the 
Epistle  now  before  us  contains  scattered  traces  of  the  genuine 
Pauline  spirit  and  style.  The  very  idea  of  the  divine  "  calling," 
which  is  employed  in  so  un-Pauline  a  manner  (i.  11) — with 
which  we  may  also  compare  the  corresponding  un-Pauline  use 
of  the  expression  "kingdom  of  God"  (i.  5)  as  of  something  yet 
to  come — appears  again  in  its  true  Pauline  form  (ii.  13, 14).  And 
indeed  the  whole  of  the  section  where  it  thus  ajDpears  (ii.  13 — 17), 
apart  perhaps  from  the  "holding  by  the  traditions"  (ver.  15), 
contains  nothing  inconsistent  with  the  Pauline  spirit.  This  is 
still  more  decidedly  the  case  with  the  exhortations  in  the  last 
chapter  (iii.  1 — 15),  and  especially  the  prayer  for  deliverance 
from  the  "perverse  and  wicked  men"  (iii.  2)  may  be  explained 
from  the  apostle's  aversion  to  the  same  enemies  whom  he  has 
spoken  of  in  the  First  Epistle  (1  Thess.  ii.  14 — 16). 

Moreover,  it  is  historically  by  no  means  improbable  that  some 
consequences  which  may  have  followed  from  the  First  Epistle  to 
the  Thessalonians  may  have  induced  the  apostle  to  write  a  Second 
Epistle,  his  careful  and  devoted  heart  longing  to  exert  as  deep  a 
personal  influence  as  possible  uj)on  his  second  Euroj^ean  commu- 
nity. In  that  case,  we  should  have  to  regard  the  relation  between 
the  two  Epistles  as  similar  to  that  between  the  two  Epistles  to 
the  Corinthians,  wliich  also  deal  to  some  extent  with  the  same 
subjects  and  originated  in  somewhat  similar  circumstances.  It 
is  possible,  then,  that  our  Second  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians  is 
only  the  later  form  of  a  Pauline  Epistle  wliich  has  been  lost  to 


TFIE  SECOND  EPISTLE  TO    THE  THESSALONIANS.  71 

US  in  its  first  form  (see  Vol.  I.  pp.  16  sq.),  and  so  the  answer  to 
the  question  of  its  authenticity  is  essentially  the  same  as  in  the 
case  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Colossians. 

The  Epistle  may  be  divided  into  four  sections  as  follows : 

(1.)  Thanksgiving  and  intercession,  i.  3 — 12. 

(2.)  Concerning  the  signs  of  the  return  of  Christ,  ii.  1 — 12. 

(3.)  Exhortations  to  the  whole  community,  ii.  13 — iii.  5. 

(4.)  Exhortation  against  the  disturbing  operations  of  individual 
members  of  the  community,  iii.  6 — 15. 

The  interpretation  of  this  Epistle  depends  essentially  upon 
the  view  taken  of  its  historical  position  and  application,  and  has 
practically  been  already  given,  to  a  very  great  extent,  along  with 
our  exposition  of  these. 


THE 

SECOND  EPISTLE  TO  THE  THESSALOKIANS. 

i.  1,  2.  Address  and  sahitation. 
These  verses,  even  to  the  addition  of  the  final  words  of  ver.  2, 
are  a  simple  transcription  of  the  opening  salutation  of  the  First 
Epistle.  [It  would  seem  that  these  last  words,  "  from  God  our 
Father,"  &c.,  belong  properly  to  this  Epistle,  and  have  been 
inserted  in  the  other  from  it,  as  they  are  found  here  in  all  the 
MSS.     See  note  on  1  Thess.  i.  1.] 

i.  3—12. 

Benewed  tJianhsgiving  and  intercession  for  the  spread  of  the  'power 

of  faith  and  the  increasing  sanctification  of  the  community. 

i.  3 — 10.  The  thanksgiving. 

It  is  remarkable  here  that  we  find  no  mention  whatever  of 
any  personal  relation  between  the  apostle  and  the  community, 
nor  any  definite  allusion  to  the  history  of  the  recent  past,  both 
of  which  are  found  in  the  thanksgiving  of  the  First  Epistle,  and 
give  it  such  life  and  power. 

5,  6,  7.  The  righteous  judgment  of  God:  The  judgment  of  God 
as  operative,  inasmuch  as  it  here  distinguishes  the  spirits  in 
preparation  for  the  day  of  the  last  judgment.  Already  this  divine 
righteousness  has  placed  the  Thessalonians  who  suffer  for  the 
kingdom  of  God  in  the  category  of  those  for  whom  the  decree  of 
God's  grace  has  appointed  eternal  rest,  or  refreshing ;  properly, 
the  "remission"  or  "  cessation"  of  all  sufferings  in  the  kingdom 
of  God  which  is  to  come.  —  Tliat  ye  may  he  counted  worthy: 
properly,  "which  (judgment  of  God)  has  determined  to  count  you 
worthy  (at  some  future  time)  of  being  received  into  the  kingdom 
of  God." — Of  the  kingdoin  of  God:  i.e.  the  future  kingdom  of  God, 
which  begins  with  the  return  of  Christ. — "  If  (not  "  seeing")  it 
is  a  righteous  thing  with  God,"  i.  e.  "  provided  we  are  right  in  our 


i.  7—12]  II.    TIIESSALONIANS.  73 

Christian  faith  that  the  justice  of  God  duly  recompenses  eternal 
tribulation  unto  them  that  trouble  you,  but  to  you,"  &c. 

8.  Them  that,  &c.,  should  be  "  them  that  know  not  God 
(i.  e.  the  Gentiles,  see  1  Thess.  iv.  5 ;  Gal.  iv.  8),  and  them  that 
obey  not,"  &c.  (i.  e.  the  Jews,  see  Eom.  x.  3).  The  idea  of  the 
eternal  punishment  of  the  Gentiles  is  in  accordance  on  tlie 
whole  with  the  ideas  of  the  apostle  on  the  subject,  as  expressed 
elsewhere  (Rom.  ii.  5  sq. ;  comp.  2  Cor.  v.  10 ;  also  Eph.  vi.  8, 
and  Col.  iii.  5,  6),  and  only  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians 
(1  Cor.  XV.  27,  28)  does  a  more  comprehensive  and  magnanimous 
view  lead  to  a  (somewhat  doubtful)  mitigation.  On  the  other 
hand  it  must  be  acknowledged  that  the  Epistle  to  the  Eomans 
(xi.  25,  26)  relieves  the  prospect,  so  excessively  painful  to  the 
apostle  himself,  of  the  eternal  perdition  of  a  portion  of  his  Jewish 
countrymen,  which  is  also  admitted  here,  by  an  expression  of 
the  hope  of  a  final  salvation  of  all  Israel.  Hence  not  only  the 
ground  of  the  salvation  of  the  Christians  (ver.  5),  but  also  the 
prospect  set  before  those  who  are  not  Christians  (vv.  G — 10), 
throw  suspicion  upon  the  Pauline  origin  of  this  passage.  [On 
the  question  of  Paul's  views  regarding  the  ultimate  salvation  of 
the  whole  human  race,  see  notes  on  Eom,  xi.  12,  25,  26;  1  Cor. 
XV.  23—28.] 

9.  Presence  :  "  face"  [so  lit.]. 

10.  In  his  saints:  i.e.  in  those  who  believe  in  him.  In  the 
future  salvation  of  his  own,  Christ  himself  will  be  contemplated 
with  praise  and  wonder  as  the  cause  of  this  salvation. — Our 
testimony :  comp.  ii.  5. 

11,  12.  The  intercession. 

11.  Wherefore :  It  is  in  view  of  the  impending  decision  that 
the  intercession  is  especially  required. —  Would  count  yoti,  &c., 
should  be,  "  Would  count  you  worthy  of  the  calling,  and  in  his 
power  perfect  (in  you)  all  willingness  for  goodness,  and  every 
work  of  faith." 

12.  And  ye  in  him :  Not  only  has  Christ  visible  manifestations 
of  his  own  glory  in  the  glory  of  those  who  are  his,  but  also  con- 
versely those  who  are  his  revere  in  him  the  source  of  light,  the 
mere  reflection  of  which  in  themselves  compels  praise  and  admi- 
ration. This  has  already  been  alluded  to  in  ver.  10,  and  is  here 
more  fully  developed. 


"74  II.   THESSALONIANS.  [ii.  1 — 5 

ii-  1 — 12.  The  certain  premonitory  signs  of  the  return  of  Christ. 

1.  Bi/  the  coming  should  be  "  in  regard  to  the  second  coming," 
and  the  second  b?/  should  be  omitted. 

2.  Eead,  "  That  ye  be  not  soon  shaken  from  your  self-posses- 
sion nor  terrified,  neither  by  prophetic  utterances  of  the  spirit 
[lit.  "  neither  by  spirit,"  as  in  A.V.],  nor  by  word  or  letter  as 
proceeding  from  us,  as  if  the  day  of  the  Lord  were  immediately 
at  hand." — "  Prophetic  utterances  of  the  spirit :"  Discourses  of 
those  who  were  excited  by  the  spirit  in  the  meetings  of  the 
community.  The  writer  does  not  deny  the  right  of  this  prophetic 
utterance  here,  any  more  than  in  1  Thess.  v.  20.  But,  as  proceed- 
ing from  fallible  men,  it  is  not  to  be  regarded  in  itself  as  neces- 
sarily a  divine  revelation,  but  it  must  be  tried  (1  Thess.  v.  21) ; 
and  so  trustworthy  tests  are  here  supplied  to  the  community  at 
Thessalonica,  in  order  that  its  members  may  not,  amid  the  excite- 
ment of  prophecy,  lose  their  sobriety  and  self-possession. — "  Nor 
by  word  or  letter  as  proceeding  from  us."  The  community  must 
not  be  shaken  from  its  self-possession  by  erroneous  and  ignorant 
appeals  to  Paul's  words,  or  his  First  Epistle  and  its.  apostolic 
authority  ("as  from  us").  That  the  fulfilment  was  immediately 
at  hand,  Paul  neither  announced  to  them  when  he  was  with  them 
nor  in  his  First  Epistle. — This  verse  bears  special  evidence  of  the 
existence  of  genuine  fragments  of  a  Second  Epistle  of  Paul  to 
the  Thessalonians  in  the  Epistle  now  before  us, 

3.  4.  Ptead,  "  Let  no  man  deceive  you  in  any  way ;  for  (he 
Cometh  not)  except  the  falling  away  first  come,  and  the  man  of 
sin  be  revealed,  the  son  of  perdition,  the  adversary  who  exalteth 
himself  above  all  that  is  called  God,  or  that  is  worshipped,  so 
that  he  setteth  himself  in  the  temple  of  God,  and  desires  to  show 
that  he  is  a  god." — The  falling  away  and  the  revelation  of  the 
man  of  sin  are  premonitory  signs  of  the  second  coming  of  Christ. 
— The  temple  of  God :  Christendom  (comp.  1  Cor.  iii.  16  sq.;  2  Cor. 
vi.  16;  Heb.  iii.  6;  1  Pet.  ii.  5,  iv.  17;  1  Tim.  iii.  15).— This 
passage  affords  some  ground  for  assigning  a  different  date  to  the 
Epistle,  and  placing  it,  with  the  Eevelation  of  John,  shortly  before 
the  conquest  of  Jerusalem,  which  took  place  in  the  year' 70  A.D. 
The  "temple  of  God"  must  then  be  understood  literally  of  the 
temple  on  Mount  Moriah. 

5 — 12.  Eead,  "  (5)  Kemember  ye  not  that  when  I  was  yet 


ii.  5—12]  11.    THESSALONIANS.  75 

with  you  I  told  you  these  things  ?  (6)  And  now  ye  know 
that  which  withholdeth  (him)  that  he  may  not  be  revealed 
until  his  time.  (7)  And  already  the  mystery  of  ungodliness  is 
engaged  in  realizing  itself  only  until  he  that  withholdeth  (it)  is 
out  of  the  way.  (8)  And  then  shall  the  ungodly  one  be  revealed 
whom  the  Lord  shall  slay  with  the  breath  of  his  mouth,  and 
shall  do  away  with  him  by  the  manifestation  of  his  coming: 
(9)  him,  whose  appearance  (will  be  brought  about)  in  accordance 
with  Satan's  way  of  working,  in  every  kind  of  lying  power  and 
signs  and  wonders,  (10)  and  in  every  deception  of  unrighteous- 
ness among  those  that  are  perishing  because  they  received  not 
the  love  of  the  truth  that  they  might  be  saved.  (11)  And  for 
this  cause  God  will  send  [or  according  to  the  best  MSS.  "is 
sending"]  to  them  the  power  of  deception,  so  that  they  shall 
believe  the  lie ;  (12)  so  that  all  might  be  judged  who  believed 
not  the  truth,  but  took  pleasure  in  a  lie." 

In  this  more  detailed  development  of  the  two  ideas  of  the 
"apostasy"  (i.e.  "falling  away")  and  the  "man  of  sin,"  the  writer 
first  completes  the  second  of  the  two  by  his  description  of  the 
"  withholding"  power  and  the  "  withholding"  person  (see  Introd.) 
which  must  be  removed  out  of  the  way  (vv.  6,  7)  before  the  ungodly 
one  can  complete,  to  his  own  destruction,  his  full  revelation  of 
himself  (ver.  8).  After  this  (vv.  9 — 11)  the  first  figure,  namely  that 
of  the  apostasy,  is  further  described  in  detail.  This  is  the  final 
picture  of  liuiiianity  before  the  judgment-seat.  It  corresponds 
to  the  final  picture  from  the  demoniacal  world  in  which  the 
evil  one  appears  before  the  judgment-seat.  What  is  especially 
characteristic  of  this  last  condition  of  humanity  is,  that  in  one 
portion  of  it,  by  means  of  the  Satanic  powers  of  deception  pos- 
sessed by  the  fully  revealed  man  of  sin,  the  consciotis  suppression 
of  the  sense  of  truth  within  (ver.  10)  takes  active  shape  as  a 
rejection  of  the  truth  given  in  Christ,  and  now  appearing  com- 
plete and  glorious  in  him  (ver.  11).  So  plainly  will  it  appear 
in  these  last  days,  that  there  is  for  humanity  no  other  perfect 
truth  at  all  (ver.  10)  than  that  which  has  been  revealed  in 
Christ  (ver.  11),  that  a  rejection  of  this  truth  is  equivalent  to 
complete  surrender  to  the  lie — a  surrender  provoked  by  Satanic 
deception — and  so  is  equivalent  to  eternal  perdition. 


76  //.   THESSALONIANS.  [ii.  13— iii.  18 

ii.  13 — iii.  5.  UxJiortations  addressed  to  the  community  as  a  whole. 

13.  Throitgh :  in. — 15.  Word  or  our  epistle :  "  our  word  or 
epistle"  [lit.  "word  or  epistle  of  ours"]. — iii.  2.  Eead,  "And  that 
we  may  be  delivered  from  the  perverse  and  wicked  men,  for  not 
all  men  have  faithfulness." — [3.  Evil:  or  "the  evil  one,"  the 
Greek  is  ambiguous.] — 5.  The  patient  waiting  for  Christ :  not, 
as  some  take  it,  "  the  patience  of  Christ." 

The  ground  of  this  exhortation  is  the  joyful  fact  of  their  divine 
calling  to  salvation  (vv.  13,  14).  Its  aim  is  the  increase  of  their 
fidelity  to  the  apostolic  doctrine  that  has  been  imparted  to 
them  (ver.  15),  moral  excellence  and  firmness  in  word  and  deed 
(vv.  16,  17),  zeal  for  the  diffusion  of  the  word  of  the  Lord  and 
the  overthrow  of  the  apostle's  opponents  with  their  malicious 
attacks  upon  his  teachings  (iii.  1 — 4),  and  finally  a  united 
expectation  of  the  return  of  Christ,  a  hope  which  is  full  of 
divine  love  (iii.  5). 

iii.  6 — 15.  Exhortations  against  certain  individuals  ivho  disturb 
the  moral  excellence  of  the  life  of  the  community. 

6.  Tradition :  From  vv.  7  sqq.  it  is  plain  that  it  is  not  any 
peculiar  doctrinal  ideas  that  are  meant  here,  but  moral  precepts. 
We  may  compare  with  the  whole  of  this  passage  (vv.  6 — 16), 
Matt,  xviii.  16,  17. 

8.  ChargcaUe :  "burdensome." 

11.  Are  hisyhodies  should  be  "  busy  themselves  with  worth- 
less matters." 

14.  Be  ashamed :  lit.  "  turn  to  himself,"  i.  e.  reflect  upon  his 
conduct  and  repent  of  it. 

iii.  16 — 18.  Conclusion. 

16.  By  all  means :  "  in  every  way." 

17.  The  salutation  of  Paul  ivith  mine  own  hand,  &c.:  The  deli- 
berate purpose  which  is  evident  in  this  express  assurance  casts 
suspicion  ujDon  its  genuineness.  Comp.  the  far  better  authenti- 
cated and  much  simpler  postscript  in  Gal.  vi.  11,  And,  moreover, 
how  are  we  to  reconcile  this  "  token"  with  the  fact  that  it  is  not 
found  in  the  undoubtedly  genuine  Epistles  of  Paul  ? 

.18  =  1  Thess.  v.  28. 


THE   PASTOKAL   EPISTLES. 


The  Epistles  which  have  been  preserved  in  our  New-Testament 
collection  of  writings  under  the  name  of  the  Epistles  of  Paul  to 
Timothy  and  to  Titus,  are  usually  spoken  of  together  as  the  Pas- 
twal  Upistles,  because  their  contents  consist  mainly  of  precepts 
for  pastoral  activity,  i.e.  for  the  guidance  of  the  life  of  the  Chris- 
tian community. 

The  tradition  of  their  Pauline  origin  may  be  traced  back  as 
far  as  the  second  century  A.D.,  but  may  nevertheless  be  proved 
by  adequate  historical  evidence  to  be  erroneous.  Not  only  do 
we  find  no  trustworthy  mention  of  these  Epistles  before  the  last 
third  of  the  second  century,  but  also  in  earlier  literature  there  is 
no  reference  at  all  to  their  contents,  not  even  where  reference  to 
them  would  have  been  very  natural,  nay,  almost  inevitable. 

That  these  three  Epistles  are  not  authentic,  and  that  they 
date  from  a  period  no  earlier  than  the  second  century,  appears — • 
apart  from  the  un-Pauline  language  which  is  common  to  tliem 
all — (1)  from  the  impossibility  of  finding  any  places  for  them  in 
the  apostle's  life  as  known  to  us ;  (2)  from  their  (almost  iden- 
tical) doctrinal  and  ecclesiastical  tendencies  ;  (3)  from  the  nature 
of  the  ecclesiastical  circumstances  assumed  in  them,  especially 
as  regards  (4)  the  heretical  teachers. 

(1.)  Not  one  of  the  three  Epistles  can  be  assigned  to  its  place 
in  the  historical  life  of  the  apostle  Paul  as  known  to  us. 

The  First  Epistle  to  Timothy  purports  to  have  been  written 
when  Paul  had  travelled  from  Ephesus  into  Macedonia  and  left 
Timothy  behind  at  Ephesus  (1  Tim.  i.  3).     This  could  only  refer 


78  THE  PASTORAL  EPISTLES. 

to  the  journey  which  is  mentioned  in  Acts  xx.  1.  But  at  that 
time  Timothy  was  so  far  from  having  been  left  behind  in  Ephesus, 
that  he  had  actually  gone  on  before  the  apostle  (Acts  xix.  22), 
and  he  met  him  again  in  Macedonia  in  order  to  make  the  return 
journey  in  his  company  (Acts  xx.  4).  Moreover,  Paul  did  not 
intend  to  return  to  Ephesus  from  Macedonia,  and  yet  this  is 
what  he  has  in  view  in  1  Tim.  iii.  14,  iv.  13.  It  is  a  strange 
thing  altogether  that  the  apostle,  who  was  with  Timothy  for 
months  together,  both  before  and  after  this  time,  should,  during 
a  temporary  absence,  have  sent  such  instructions  in  writing,  as 
if  they  were  intended  for  a  prolonged  exercise  of  office.  Such 
an  unnatural  state  of  things  can  only  be  explained  as  invented 
by  a  later  writer  to  enable  him  to  clothe  his  own  pastoral  pre- 
cepts in  the  form  of  an  Epistle  from  the  hand  of  the  celebrated 
apostle. 

The  Epistle  to  Titus  assumes  the  following  position  of  affairs  : 
The  apostle  Paul  is  supposed  to  have  been  labouring  in  Crete, 
then  on  his  departure  to  have  left  Titus  as  his  representative, 
and  while  on  his  journey  to  have  sent  him  this  Epistle  with  its 
instruction  in  the  duties  of  his  ofiice.  In  it  he  further  requires 
him  to  come  to  him  quickly  at  Mcopolis,  where  he  (Paul) 
intends  to  winter  (Tit.  i.  5,  iii.  12).  Now  the  Book  of  Acts 
mentions  no  stay  of  Paul's  on  the  island  of  Crete  except  the 
short  stay  during  his  voyage  as  a  prisoner  to  Eome.  Of  course 
this  cannot  be  what  is  referred  to  here.  Nor  does  the  Book  of 
Acts  represent  Paul  on  any  occasion  as  spending  the  winter  in 
Nicopolis.  Nor,  again,  can  we  find  room  to  insert  this  scene  in 
Crete  and  Nicopolis  anywhere  in  the  narrative  of  the  missionary 
journeys  of  Paul  in  the  Book  of  Acts.  We  cannot  insert  it  hefore 
the  period  of  liis  residence  in  Ephesus  (Acts  xix.),  for  it  was 
there  that  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Apollos  who  is  mentioned 
in  the  Epistle  (Tit.  iii.  13).  Nor  can  we  insert  it  after  that 
period ;  for  after  Acts  xx.  1,  the  events  that  follow  are  so  closely 
connected  with  one  another  that  such  an  interval  is  incredible. 
Einally,  we  cannot  insert  it  during  the  residence  in  Ephesus,  for 


THE  PASTORAL  EnSTLES.  79 

an  interruption  of  his  stay  there,  which  must  have  lasted  more 
than  six  months,  must  surely  have  been  worth  mentioning.  In 
addition  to  this,  the  following  difficulties  should  be  considered. 
In  the  community  so  recently  founded  there  are  already  "  here- 
tics," schismatics  (iii.  10),  who  must  therefore  have  sprung  up 
under  Paul's  very  eyes  when  he  founded  the  community.  Con- 
cerning these,  Paul,  who  is  absent,  gives  information  to  Titus, 
who  is  present,  and  who  must  have  known  the  state  of  affairs 
better  himself.  He  gives  him  by  letter  detailed  instruction  in 
the  duties  of  his  office,  whereas  he  might  have  inculcated  all 
that,  and  much  more,  orally.  Finally,  while  giving  him  instruc- 
tions for  a  long  term  of  office,  he  writes  to  him  at  the  very  same 
time  that  he  is  to  come  to  him  at  Nicopolis  as  soon  as  possible, 
before  he  has  had  any  time  to  carry  out  his  instructions.  All 
these  inexplicable  difficulties  show  us  that  the  whole  position  of 
affairs  is  unhistorical  and  is  an  invention  of  the  writer. 

Finally,  the  Second  Einstle  to  Timothy  purports  to  have  been 
written  from  Eome,  from  the  imprisonment  there  (i.  8,  17).  It 
is  involved,  however,  in  contradictions  with  the  Epistle  to  the 
Philippians,  written  from  the  same  imprisonment.  In  the  Epistle 
to  the  Philippians  we  find  that  Timothy  is  with  Paul,  and  Paul 
does  not  intend  to  send  him  to  Philippi  until  he  knows  some- 
thing definite  as  to  the  course  of  his  trial  (Phil.  ii.  19,  23).  Here 
we  find  Timothy  is  not  only  away  from  Paul,  but  he  has  never 
been  with  him  since  his  imprisonment.  He  has  to  be  informed 
not  only  in  regard  to  the  trial,  but  also  in  regard  to  otlier 
Roman  affairs,  and  even  occurrences  which  evidently  preceded 
Paul's  arrest  (iv.  20) ;  all  which  is  entirely  inconsistent  with  the 
historical  facts  of  which  we  have  the  surest  evidence.  In  addi- 
tion to  all  this,  the  Epistle  is  involved  in  self-contradiction. 
According  to  iv.  6  sq.,  Paul's  cause  is  hopeless.  According  to 
iv.  17  sq.,  the  worst  danger  is  passed.  According  to  iv.  9,  21, 
the  person  to  whom  the  Epistle  is  addressed  is  to  come  to  Paul 
as  soon  as  possible,  and  at  any  rate  before  the  winter ;  and  yet 
the  Epistle  itself  contains  instructions  for  a  long  period  of  office, 


80  THE  PASTORAL  EPISTLES. 

and  exhortations  to  endure  faithfully  amid  all  difficulties  and 
sufferings,  and  to  execute  fully  the  office  of  pastor  (iv.  2,  5,  &c.). 
Finally,  it  is  most  remarkable  that  the  apostle,  writing  from 
Eome,  should  mention  trifling  occurrences  (as  in  iv.  13, 20)  which 
took  place  before  his  arrest  in  Jerusalem,  that  is  to  say,  at  least 
three  years  previously  to  the  date  of  the  Epistle.  All  this  leaves 
not  a  doubt  as  to  the  unhistorical  nature  of  the  whole  position 
of  affairs  represented  in  this  Epistle.  (On  the  two  sections,  iv.  9 
sqq.  and  i.  15  sqq.,  we  shall  have  some  further  remarks  to  make 
hereafter  [see  p.  85].) 

(2.)  The  ecclesiastical  doctrine  of  the  Pastoral  Epistles  is  very 
widely  different  from  the  ancient  Pauline  doctrine.  Of  the 
peculiar  Pauline  doctrines  concerning  the  Law  and  the  Gospel, 
works  and  faith,  we  find  here  only  colourless  fragments,  which 
have  an  appearance  of  fixed  traditional  formulae,  while  the  actual 
conscious  faith  has  changed.  The  statements  of  1  Tim.  i.  8  sq. 
in  regard  to  the  Law  occupy  only  a  general  moral  ground,  and 
have  nothing  in  common  with  Paul's  doctrine  of  the  Law  and  his 
fundamental  opposition  to  the  legal  point  of  view.  The  univer- 
sality of  the  divine  grace  is  connected  in  these  Epistles,  not  with 
the  abolition  of  the  Law  through  Christ  (as  in  Paul's  writings), 
but  with  the  unity  of  God  (ii.  5).  Not  only  does  the  writer, 
from  first  to  last,  attach  much  greater  weight  than  Paul  does  to 
good  loorks  (Tit.  iii.  8,  14,  ii.  14,  7 ;  2  Tim.  iii.  14 ;  1  Tim.  v.  10), 
but  they  even  have  a  meritorious  value  (at  least  in  the  First 
Epistle  to  Timothy,  see  ii.  15,  iii.  13,  iv.  8,  vi.  19),  form  steps  to 
heaven  (1  Tim.  iii.  13),  and  gather  a  store  of  merits  for  the  future 
(1  Tim.  vi.  19),  all  of  which  is  very  little  in  harmony  with  the 
fundamental  Pauline  idea  of  justification  by  faith  alone  without 
any  human  ground  for  boasting. — Faith,  indeed,  is  frequently 
spoken  of,  but  the  word  is  already  applied  in  its  ecclesiastical 
sense  of  agreement  with  the  right  doctrine  handed  down  by  the 
church ;  nay,  to  some  extent,  indeed,  it  is  identified  with  the 
doctrine  itself,  so  that  faith  is  equivalent  to  doctrinal  belief, 
which  is  never  the  case  in  Paul's  writings  (see  1  Tim.  i.  4,  ii.  7, 


TEE  PASTORAL   EPISTLES.  81 

iii.  9,  iv.  1,  6,  vi.  10).  Great  importance  is  attached  to  right 
doctrine,  to  the  confession  of  it  and  the  maintenance  of  it  as  it 
has  been  received,  without  departing  from  it,  without  falsifying 
it,  without  entering  into  unsound  disputes  which  destroy  the 
peace  of  the  chnrch.  "  Soundness"  of  religious  life  here  consists 
in  the  acceptance  of  "  sound,"  i.e.  orthodox,  doctrine.  Christianity 
itself  is  even  called  simply  "the  doctrine"  (1  Tim.  vi.  1).  The 
common  consciousness  of  the  church  has  already  become  so 
strong  as  to  form  a  law,  a  rule  of  faith,  an  obligatory  standard 
for  the  faith  of  individuals  (see  1  Tim.  i.  5,  vi.  14 ;  for  the  "  sound 
doctrine,"  see  1  Tim.  i.  10,  vi.  3,  2  Tim.  i.  13,  and  many  other 
passages ;  for  the  preservation  of  that  which  has  been  received, 
and  continuance  in  it,  1  Tim.  iv.  6,  16,  vi.  3,  14,  20,  2  Tim.  i.  13, 
&c.)  In  complete  correspondence  with  this,  the  church,  as  the 
bearer  of  this  sound  doctrine,  is  called  the  foundation  and  pillar 
of  the  truth  (1  Tim.  iii.  15).  As  the  true  universal  church,  it  is 
distinctly  separated  from  the  heretics  (Tit.  iii.  10 ;  1  Tim.  i.  20), 
as  apostates,  castaways,  diabolical  deceivers  (1  Tim.  iv.  1  and 
frequently), 

(3,)  The  condition  of  the  ckurch  which  is  assumed  in  these 
three  Epistles,  points  unmistakably  to  the  second  century.  In  its 
opposition  to  the  heretics  mentioned  above  and  its  contests  with 
them,  the  church  has  consolidated  itself.  The  ecclesiastical  con- 
stitution is  now  so  far  developed  that  in  1  Tim.  we  find  the  office 
of  bishop  clearly  distinguished  from  that  of  elder  (the  bishop 
appears  from  1  Tim.  v.  19  even  to  have  had  the  power  of  passing 
sentence  upon  the  elders),  whereas  not  only  in  the  apostolic 
age,  but  even  at  the  beginning  of  the  second  century,  "  elder"  and 
"bishop"  were  synonymous  terms.  The  elders,  however,  have 
formed  themselves  into  a  "presbytery"  (1  Tim.  iv.  14).  By  this 
presbytery  the  bishop  is  ordained  with  laying  on  of  hands  and 
dedicatory  prayer  (ib.),  and  by  this  ecclesiastical  act  of  dedication 
he  receives  the  gift  of  his  office.  How  foreign  is  all  this  to  the 
Christian  community  of  the  Pauline  age,  where  doctrine,  ministry 
and  the  guidance  of  the  community  were  all  determined,  not  by 

VOL.  III.  G 


82  THE  PASTORAL  EPISTLES. 

ecclesiastical  appointment  and  consecration,  but  by  the  gift  of 
the  Holy  Spirit  according  as  it  was  given  to  each  (comp.  1  Cor. 
xii.). — Again,  the  disciplme  of  the  church  is  already  very  definitely 
developed.  Heretics,  after  being  twice  or  thrice  warned,  are  cast 
out  (Tit.  iii.  10;  1  Tim.  i.  20).  [Comp.  Matt,  xviii.  15—20.]  Those 
who  have  lapsed  are  received  again,  after  a  period  of  repentance 
and  reformation,  with  laying  on  of  hands  by  the  bishop  (1  Tim, 
V.  22,  24  sq.).  The  public  worship  of  the  church  takes  the 
regular  form  of  reading  the  Scriptures  and  exposition  of  them  by 
the  bishop  or  one  of  the  elders  (iv.  13,  v.  17).  And,  moreover,  the 
"  Scriptitrc"  includes  not  only  the  Old  Testament,  but  also  the 
Gospels,  one  of  which  (Luke  x.  7)  is  quoted  as  "  Scripture"  (1  Tim. 
V.  18).  Liturgical  formulae  have  already  taken  shape,  one  such 
formula  being  undoubtedly  found  in  1  Tim.  iii.  16. — Finally,  we 
find  a  very  peculiar  institution  here,  which  nowhere  presents 
itself  earlier  than  the  second  century  (1  Tim.  v.  9  sqq.),  viz.  the 
%vidows  in  the  church,  a  spiritual  order  of  aged  women  to  whom 
is  assigned  a  position  of  honour  in  the  community  on  account  of 
the  services  they  have  done  to  the  church,  and  who  are  provided 
for  by  the  community.  It  is  a  condition  of  this  order  (as  in  the 
case  of  those  who  are,  properly  speaking,  officials  of  the  church) 
only  to  have  been  married  once,  a  second  marriage  being  regarded 
as  a  moral  blot  which  excludes  them  from  this  honour ;  and  in 
this  we  see  a  stepping-stone  to  tlie  later  sacerdotal  vow  of  celibacy 
and  a  monastic  life. 

(4.)  Tlie  false  teachers  with  whom  the^  writer  of  the  Pastoral 
Epistles  has  to  contend  are  all  characterized  alike  by  the  follow- 
ing traits.  They  boast  of  a  higher  knowledge  of  God  (Tit.  i.  16), 
but  it  consists  in  mythical  ideas  of  the  procession  of  spirits  from 
God  ("genealogies"  and  "  myths"  [KN .  fables'],  Tit.  iii.  9  ;  1  Tim. 
i.  4),  ideas  which  were  associated  with  the  Law  (the  Old  Testa- 
ment), and  were  probably  clothed  in  the  form  of  a  figurative 
interpretation  of  it  ("  teachers  of  the  Law,"  "  fightings  about  the 
Law,"  1  Tim.  i.  7 ;  Tit.  iii.  9,  i.  14).  With  this  imagery  were 
united  ascetic  principles,  the  prohibition  of  certain  kinds  of  food. 


TEE  PASTORAL  EPISTLES.  83 

and  of  marriage  (1  Tim.  iv.  3,  8;  Tit.  i.  14  sqq.),  a  tendency  which 
has  its  precedent  in  the  Essenic  scruples  of  the  false  teachers 
at  Colossfe  and  the  "  weak  brethren"  in  Eome,  but  which  goes 
beyond  them,  inasmuch  as  asceticism  here  rests  definitely  upon 
a  system  in  which  matter,  as  such,  is  regarded  as  unclean 
and  defiling.  Hence  our  Epistles  point  out  that  everything 
created  by  God  is,  as  such,  good  and  clean,  and  nothing  in 
and  by  itself  is  evil  or  defiling,  as  the  false  teachers  supposed 
that  which  is  material  to  be.  "With  this  view  of  theirs  was  fur- 
ther connected  the  rejection  of  the  bodily  resurrection,  resurrec- 
tion being  taken  by  them  to  mean  that  spiritual  resurrection  of 
the  higher  knowledge  which  had  already  taken  place  (2  Tim. 
ii.  18).  Finally,  the  stress  which  is  laid  upon  the  humanity  of 
Christ  and  his  appearance  in  the  flesh  (1  Tim.  ii.  5,  iii.  16)  seems 
to  indicate  that  there  was  on  the  other  side  a  denial  of  the 
humanity  of  Christ.  Still  this  cannot  yet  have  become  very 
prominent,  otherwise  it  would  doubtless  have  been  more  dis- 
tinctly and  emphatically  disputed  (as  in  the  later  polemical 
literature  of  the  church,  e.g.  the  Ignatian  Epistles). — If  we  now 
proceed  to  inquire  with  what  historical  phenomenon  all  these 
characteristics  agree,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  is  the  Gnostics 
of  the  second  century  who  are  here  assailed.  And  this  is  expressly 
confirmed  by  the  phrase  in  1  Tim.  vi.  20,  "  the  gnosis  falsely  so 
called."  But  among  the  different  Gnostic  systems  which  agitated 
the  church  during  half  a  century,  we  are  not  here  concerned 
with  the  latest  and  most  fully  developed  (the  Valentinians  and 
Marcion),  for  these  either  rejected  the  Law  entirely  or  used  it 
only  for  polemical  purposes,  and  so  could  not  be  called  "  teachers 
of  the  Law ;"  and,  moreover,  they  carried  the  doctrine  that  the 
humanity  of  Christ  was  only  apparent  (docetism)  much  further 
than  we  can  suppose  it  to  have  been  carried  by  the  false  teachers 
mentioned  in  our  Epistles.  Accordingly,  we  must  look  for  the 
false  teachers  in  these  Epistles  among  the  earlier  Gnostics,  Cerin- 
thus,  the  Ophites,  Saturninus  and  the  earlier  Basilidians,  who 
flourished  in  the  first  three  decades  of  the  second  century. 

G  2 


84  TRE  PASTORAL   EPISTLES. 

We  have  thus  been  able  to  fix  the  period,  generally,  to  which 
our  three  Epistles  belong.  But  within  this  period,  the  order  of 
their  succession  may  further  be  ascertained  with  tolerable  proba- 
bility from  minor  details  and  shades  of  difference. 

The  First  Epistle  to  Timothy  is  undoubtedly  the  latest  of  the 
three  Epistles.  It  presupposes  the  most  advanced  development 
both  in  ecclesiastical  affairs  (especially  the  constitution  of  the 
church)  and  in  the  errors  assailed.  Next  stands  the  Eijistle  to 
Titus,  where  the  distinction  between  bishops  and  elders  is  not 
so  fixed  (see  notes  on  i.  5,  7),  the  false  teachers  are  more  gently 
judged  and  more  hopefully  spoken  of  (see  i.  13  and  note  on  iii.  9), 
and  as  yet  no  fear  of  docetisra  calls  for  special  care  in  regard  to 
the  deification  of  Christ  (see  note  on  Tit.  ii.  13).  Finally,  the 
Second  Epistle  to  Timothy  is  decidedly  the  oldest  of  the  three. 
Here  the  false  teachers  are  not  particularly  described  (except  in 
regard  to  the  isolated  characteristic  in  ii.  18).  The  principle  of 
the  church  in  relation  to  them  is  still — in  marked  contrast  to 
the  two  other  Epistles,  especially  1  Tim. — gentleness  and  tolera- 
tion (ii.  24  sqq.).  There  is  as  yet  no  ecclesiastical  episcopacy, 
and  the  personal  exhortations  addressed  to  the  recipient  of  the 
letter  (the  representative  of  the  presiding  authorities  of  the  com- 
munity) are  in  part  so  far  from  flattering,  that  they  would  be 
very  little  suited  to  the  later  ideas  of  the  exalted  episcopal  rank. 
In  regard  to  this  latter  point,  the  case  is  the  same  with  the 
Epistle  of  Ignatius  to  Poly  carp,  which  altogether  displays  striking 
points  of  contact  with  2  Tim. 

This  order  of  the  three  Epistles  has  also  external  historical 
confirmation.  In  the  First  Epistle  to  Timothy,  not  only  is  there 
no  mention  of  the  sufferings  and  persecutions  of  the  Christians, 
but  the  Christian  community  even  expects  protection  and  safety 
from  the  kings  and  rulers  (1  Tim.  ii.  2).  This  agrees  with  the 
reign  of  Hadrian,  whose  friendly  disposition  and  moderation 
towards  the  Christians  are  expressly  mentioned  by  Eusebius 
(Ecc.  Hist.  iv.  8  sq.).  On  the  other  hand,  the  Second  Ejaistle  to 
Timothy  is  full  of  lamentations  over  the  sufferings  which  the 


THE  PASTORAL  EPISTLES.  85 

Christians  cannot  escape  (2  Tim.  iii.  12),  and  its  main  purpose  is 
to  exhort  its  readers  to  fidelity  and  endurance  under  these  perse- 
cutions (i.  7  sq.,  ii.  1 — 13).  This  must  have  been  in  the  reign  of 
Trajan,  who  first  organized  a  general  official  persecution  of  the 
Christians  in  Asia. 

Another  peculiarity  of  the  Second  Epistle  to  Timothy  must  be 
mentioned,  which  likewise  makes  it  appear  to  be  the  oldest,  and 
the  others  to  have  been  based  upon  it.  In  the  latter,  there  is 
little  that  is  personal ;  and  even  this  betrays  itself  as  the  inven- 
tion of  the  writer's  imagination  (see  above).  In  2  Tim.,  however, 
there  are  at  least  two  sections  which  have  recently  been  taken — 
and  probably  not  erroneously — to  be  fragments  of  genuine  Pauline 
Epistles.  These  passages  are  2  Tim.  i.  15 — 18,  and  iv.  9 — 21. 
The  first  of  these  two  is  shown,  by  its  peculiar  disconnected 
position  between  i.  14  and  ii.  1,  to  be  an  independent  fragment 
which  has  been  enclosed  here.  In  that  case,  there  is  no  reason 
why  it  should  not  have  been  written  by  the  apostle  to  some 
friend  during  his  imprisonment  in  Eome.  The  second  section 
makes  a  special  impression  of  genuineness  by  its  many  personal 
notices.  That  it  did  not,  however,  originally  belong  to  the  Epis- 
tle, and  so  proves  nothing  with  regard  to  the  authenticity  of  the 
whole,  follows  from  the  contradiction  already  noticed  between 
iv.  6  sqq.  and  iv.  17  sq.  On  the  contrary,  it  is  probable  that  this 
section,  iv.  9 — 21,  is  from  the  beginning  of  Paul's  imprisonment 
in  Csesarea.  This  explains  vv.  13  and  20,  which  refer  to  the 
journey  which  the  apostle  had  recently  made  from  Corinth,  via 
Troas,  to  Jerusalem  (Acts  xx.  xxi.).  In  that  case  the  "  first 
defence"  [A.V.  "answer"]  (ver.  16)  is  the  defence  before  Eelix 
in  Ceesarea  (Acts  xxiv.) ;  and  the  "  deliverance  out  of  the  mouth 
of  the  lion"  (ver.  17)  is  the  deliverance  from  the  plot  to  murder 
him,  and  from  the  unlawful  jurisdiction  of  the  bloodthirsty  Jews 
(xxiii.,  xxiv.  22) ;  and  the  "  completion  of  the  proclamation " 
(ver.  17)  refers  to  the  possibility  newly  opened  to  him  of  con- 
tinuing and  completing  his  missionary  activity.  Of  course  the 
leaving  of  Trophimus  behind  in  Miletus  (ver.  20)  does  not  agree 


86  THE  PASTORAL  EPISTLES. 

with  the  Book  of  Acts  (see  Acts  xxi.  29),  but  it  is  possible  that 
the  narrative  of  the  latter  is  not  very  accurate  here. 

Since,  then,  the  writer  of  the  Second  Epistle  to  Timothy 
incorporated  in  his  composition  fragments  of  two  genuine 
Pauline  Epistles  which  had  somehow  or  other  come  into  his 
possession,  it  was  the  more  natural  that  he  should  wish  it  to  be 
respected  and  accepted  as  Pauline.  His  2>urpose,  however,  in 
writing  the  Epistle  was  partly  practical — to  exhort  the  Christians 
to  fidelity  and  firmness  under  the  sufferings  of  the  persecution 
(under  Trajan)  (i.,  ii.  1 — 13,  iii.  10 — 12),  and  partly  polemic — to 
warn  against  the  seductions  of  the  false  teachers  who  at  that 
time  were  beginning  to  take  a  more  decided  ground  (ii.  14 — 
iii.  9,  iii.  13— iv.  5). 

As  the  threatening  danger  from  these  latter  continued  to 
increase,  and  a  firmer  coalition  of  the  orthodox  communities  and 
a  regular  ecclesiastical  organization  became  a  more  and  more 
pressing  necessity,  the  example  of  the  first  Pastoral  Epistle  was 
followed  (either  by  the  same  or  by  another  v/riter),  first  in  the 
Epistle  to  Titus,  and  afterwards  in  the  Eirst  Epistle  to  Timothy. 
As,  however,  the  Epistle  to  Timothy  which  had  already  appeared 
was  a  farewell  Epistle  (iv.  6  sqq.),  the  second  one  had  to  be 
placed  at  an  earlier  period  in  the  apostle's  life,  and  hence  it 
obtained  the  name  of  the  First  Epistle  to  Timothy.  The  con- 
tents of  these  two  Pastoral  Epistles  consist  partly  of  attacks 
upon  false  doctrines,  partly  of  precepts  for  the  arrangement  of 
the  affairs  of  the  Christian  communities,  partly  of  ethical  pre- 
cepts for  various  ranks  and  degrees  of  Christians.  Doctrinal 
discussions  are  only  occasional,  and  are  introduced  here  and 
there  for  the  confutation  of  irregular  doctrine  or  to  confirm 
moral  exhortations.  There  is  no  trace  in  either  Epistle  of  any 
systematic  division  and  arrangement  of  these  materials  (see 
Commentary). 


THE  FIEST  EPISTLE  TO  TIMOTHY. 


i.  1,  2.  Introduction. 

1.  By  the  commandment  (or  "commission")  of  God  our  Saviour 
(deliverer) :  This  appellation  of  God  is  not  to  be  found  in  the 
Pauline  Epistles,  but  it  occurs  repeatedly  in  the  Pastoral  Epistles. 
They  may  have  had  an  interest  in  emphasizing  the  statement  that 
God  himself  is  the  proper  (original)  author  of  salvation,  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  false  Gnostic  doctrine  which  taught  that  between 
the  creative  God  and  the  Eedeem^r  there  was  a  dualistic  opposi- 
tion, or  supposed  that  there  were  intermediate  semi-divine  beings 
(ffions)  who  were  the  authors  of  the  redemption. — "  Christ,  our 
hope :"  Either  inasmuch  as  our  hope  rests  on  him,  and  he  is  the 
pledge  of  our  hope  and  also  of  our  final  deliverance  (comp.  Eom, 
viii.  34  sqq.) ;  or  inasmuch  as  he  is  the  object  of  our  hope,  the 
one  for  whom  we  hope — hope,  namely,  that  by  his  appearance  for 
the  establishment  of  the  kingdom  of  his  glory  (vi.  14)  he  will 
also  bring  those  who  believe  in  him  to  blessed  perfection.  The 
latter  is  the  more  probable  explanation.  The  Pastoral  Epistles 
so  far  occupy  an  entirely  Pauline  position,  in  still  regarding 
salvation  as  pre-eminently  a  future  thing,  a  subject  of  hope. 
This  is  not  so  in  John. 

2.  [Oion  son:  properly  "lawful  son."] — Grace,  mercy,  peace: 
This  formula,  in  expression  of  the  writer's  good  wishes,  is  peculiar 
to  the  Pastoral  Epistles.  Paul  always  wishes  simply,  Grace  and 
peace.  The  former,  then,  represents  the  cause  of  Christian  sal- 
vation in  God,  and  the  latter  the  effect  of  reconciliation  in  the 
human  mind.  Mercy,  as  the  motive  power  of  grace,  is  included  in 
it,  and  its  separate  mention  is  therefore  pleonastic.  This  might  be 
explained  by  the  same  interest  as  the  phrase,  "  God  our  Saviour" 
(ver.  1),  viz.  by  the  contest  with  the  false  Gnostic  doctrine,  that 
the  just  God  (the  God  of  the  Old  Testament)  was  not  at  the 
same  time  the  merciful  and  forgiving  God  of  Christianity. 


88  I.   TIMOTHY.  [i.  3,  4 

i.  3 — 11.  Against  false  teachers. 

3.  As  I  besought  ("exhorted")  thee:  The  apodosis  to  this  is 
wanting.  It  would  run  somewhat  as  follows  :  So  do  I  now  repeat 
and  confirm,  in  writing,  my  commission  in  regard  to  those  false 
teachers.  [It  is  supplied  somewhat  differently  in  A.V.  by  the 
insertion  of  the  words  so  do  at  the  end  of  ver.  4.] — On  the  rest  of 
the  verse,  the  proper  translation  of  which  is  so  simple  that  there 
can  be  no  doubt  about  it,  and  no  alteration  has  been  attempted 
except  upon  irrelevant  and  dogmatic  grounds,  see  the  remarks 
on  pp.  77  sq. — That  they  teach  no  other  doctrine :  The  word  only 
occurs  here  and  in  vi.  3.  [The  Greek  has  one  compound  word  = 
"  To  teach  another  doctrine."]  The  meaning  is  the  same  as  in 
the  phrase,  "  another  gospel,"  2  Cor.  xi.  4 ;  Gal.  i.  6,  i.  e.  a  false 
doctrine  departing  fundamentally  from  the  apostolic  doctrine.  In 
the  passages  we  have  just  referred  to  in  Paul's  Epistles,  what  was 
meant  was  the  Judaistic  conception  of  Christianity  directed  against 
Paul.  Here  what  is  meant  is  the  Gnostic  doctrine  directed  against 
the  doctrine  of  the  church,  as  is  shown  by  ver.  4. 

4.  Fables  and  endless  genealogies :  The  former  denotes  the  false 
doctrine  in  its  general  character  as  a  mere  creation  of  the  brain, 
the  latter  its  more  exact  contents.  To  the  question  of  what  is 
meant  by  these  endless  gcnecdogies,  various  answers  have  been 
given.  (1)  Jewish  genealogies,  the  family  trees  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, either  in  the  literal  sense,  or  with  a  figurative  interpreta- 
tion applying  them  to  the  religious  states  of  the  soul.  P)ut  if  it 
be  literally  the  Old  Testament  genealogies  that  are  meant,  how 
could  they  be  spoken  of  as  fables,  and  the  harmless  study  of 
them  as  "another"  (i.e.  false)  doctrine?  Figurative  interpreta- 
tions of  them,  relating  to  the  religious  states  of  the  soul,  are 
found  in  Philo,  but  cannot  be  proved  to  have  been  in  vogue 
among  the  Essenes ;  nor  do  the  other  characteristics  of  these 
false  teachers  belong  to  the  Essenes  (see  Introd.  pp.  82  sq.).  (2) 
Series  of  spiritual  beings  of  the  invisible  world  proceeding  from 
the  abyss  of  God ;  in  this  case,  either  the  spirits  belonging  to  the 
Kabbalistic  wisdom  of  God,  or  those  of  the  Essenic  doctrine  of 
angels,  or  of  the  Gnostic  doctrine  of  seons.  It  cannot  refer  to  the 
Kabbala,  however,  for  it  is  Christian  opponents  who  are  here 
dealt  with,  not  Jewish.  The  Essenes  recognized,  indeed,  different 
orders  of  angels,  but  did  not  represent  them  as  descended  from 


i.  4—9]  /.    TIMOTHY.  89 

one  another.  This  only  agrees  with  the  Gnostic  doctrine  of  seons, 
which  were  represented  as  cosmic  powers,  personified  intermediate 
beings  between  the  super-material  God  and  the  material  world, 
proceeding  from  one  another,  and  therefore  essentially  connected 
with  one  another,  and  standing  in  a  relation  of  dependence  one 
upon  the  other.  With  this  not  only  the  epithet  fallcs,  but  also 
endless,  agrees  excellently,  inasmuch  as  these  seons  represented 
personified  ideas,  the  series  of  which  could  be  spun  out  indefi- 
nitely, and  concerning  which  all  sorts  of  fabulous  statements 
might  be  made.  This  expression  for  the  Gnostic  series  of  semi- 
divine  beings  is  found,  moreover,  in  Irenseus  and  Tertullian. — 
Which  wdnister,  &c.,  should  be,  "  Which  offer  controversy  rather 
than  divine  salvation  as  it  has  been  given  in  the  faith."  The 
unshaken  validity  of  the  ecclesiastical  doctrine,  which  has  God's 
true  ordinance  of  salvation  as  its  contents,  is  opposed  to  the 
tottering  nature  of  the  false  doctrine,  the  controversies  of  which 
only  concern  fables. 

5.  By  the  commandment  we  must  here  understand,  not  the 
moral  law,  but  the  ecclesiastical  rule  of  faith  (as  in  vi.  14) ;  what 
is  meant  is  that  which  is  to  serve  as  a  standard  for  the  belief  of 
the  individual.  This  proves  itself  to  be  a  genuine  faith  by  its 
moral  effect  (the  end),  viz.  "  love  out  of  a  pure  heart,  and  out  of 
a  good  conscience,  and  out  of  unfeigned  faith."  The  true  love, 
therefore,  presupposes  not  only  a  pure  disposition  generally,  but 
also  especially  the  genuine  faith,  which  must  be  understood  here 
to  mean  not  simply  personal  truth  of  conviction,  but  also  actual 
external  orthodoxy  (in  opposition  to  heresy). — This  is  the  eccle- 
siastical application  of  the  thought  expressed  in  Gal.  v.  6  ! 

7.  The  false  teachers  are  not  called  teachers  of  the  Law  as  being 
Judaistic  observers  of  the  Law,  like  those  of  the  Epistle  to  the 
Galatians,  nor  as  being  fundamentally  opposed  to  it,  like  the 
Gnostic  Marcion,  as  it  might  be,  but  as  Judaizing  Gnostics,  who 
put  forward  their  figurative  interpretation  of  the  Law  as  true 
knowledge  of  the  Law.  Such  were  the  earlier  Gnostics,  such  as 
the  Ophites  and  Saturniuus. 

8,  9.  In  opposition  to  the  false  exposition  of  the  Law  by  the 
false  teachers,  the  true  application  of  it  by  orthodox  Christian 
teachers  proceeds  from  the  perception  that  the  Law  is  not  for 
the  righteous  man,  who  does  right  of  himself,  but  for  sinners 


90  /.   TIMOTHY.  [i.  9—17 

who  require  external  discipline — a  general  moral  proposition, 
which  must  not  be  confused  with  the  peculiar  Pauline  doctrine 
of  the  Law  (see  Eom.  v.  20 ;  Gal.  iii.  19 — 24),  though  it  may- 
remind  us  of  Gal.  V.  23. —  Unholy  and  profane:  Such  as  esteem 
nothing  holy,  and  wickedly  offend  against  God  himself 

10.  Sound  doctrine :  A  conception  peculiar  to  these  three 
Epistles  =  the  right  doctrine,  the  doctrine  which  is  in  accordance 
with  the  ecclesiastical  canon.  It  assumes  the  development  of  an 
ecclesiastical  consciousness,  a  rule  of  faith  (see  note  on  ver,  5). 

11.  Eead,  "According  to  the  gospel  of  the  glory  of  the  blessed 
God,"  &c. :  comp.  2  Cor.  iv,  4.  The  glory  of  the  blessed  God  is 
the  subject-matter  of  the  gospel,  in  so  far  as  it  proclaims  the 
revelation  and  beatific  communication  of  the  divine  perfection, 
and  especially  of  the  divine  fulness  of  love,  through  Christ. — 
This  verse  imitates  a  formula  which  repeatedly  occurs  in  the 
Pauline  Epistles,  without  the  same  reason  for  it  in  the  context 
here,  as  in  Gal.  ii.  7;  1  Thess.  ii.  4;  1  Cor.  ix.  17  sq. 

i.  12 — 17.  Personal. 

12.  Minigtry:  "office." 

[13.  Lijuriotis :  a  feeble  rendering  of  a  strong  Greek  word^ 
which  means  properly,  "  wanton,"  "  insolent,"  "  ungovernable,"  or 
"  licentious."  It  is  also  used  of  animals  in  the  sense  of  "  savage, 
untameable."  In  the  New  Testament  it  only  occurs  in  one  other 
passage,  viz.  Eom.  i.  30,  where  Paul  is  piling  up  epithets  to 
describe  the  worst  aspects  of  heathen  life,  and  is  there  rendered 
despite/id.'] 

15.  Of  wlwm  I  am  chief:  An  exaggerated  imitation  of  1  Cor. 
XV.  9  ("the  least  of  the  apostles"),  which,  in  the  hands  of  the 
Pauline  author  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians,  had  already 
passed  into  the  unsuitable  form,  "  the  least  of  all  the  saints" 
(Eph.  iii.  8). 

17.  The  King  eter7ial :  lit.  "the  King  of  the  asons,"  i.e.  of 
the  ages,  which  collectively  of  course  form  eternity.  What 
is  meant  by  seons  here  is  not  the  Gnostic  feons,  which  are 
fables  (ver.  4),  although  no  doubt  there  is  an  allusion  to  them,  as 
though  the  orthodox  conception  should  be  opposed  to  the  false 
one. — The  only  wise  God  should  be  "  the  only  God."  The  word 
"  wise"  is  not  found  in  the  best  MSS.,  and  is  probably  an  inter- 


i.  17— ii.  7]  /.  TIMOTHY.  91 

polatiou  from  Eom.  xvi.  27.  The  emphasis  laid  upon  the  unity 
of  God  is  directed  against  the  idea  of  a  multitude  of  divine 
beings  in  the  false  doctrine  of  the  Gnostics. 

i.  18 — 20.  Exliortation  to  Timothy,  and  condemnation  of  false 

teachers. 

19.  Wliich  some,  &c. :  "  which  some  having  put  away,  made 
shipwreck  concerning  tlie  faith." 

20.  Hymenoius  and  Alexander :  These  appear  in  2  Tim.  ii.  17, 
iv.  14,  as  prominent  heretics,  but  there  they  are  not  yet  excom- 
municated.—  Whom  I  have  delivered  ^onto  Satan,  &c. :  comp.  1  Cor. 
V.  5.  What  is  meant  is  not  simply  that  they  have  been  excluded 
from  the  community,  but  that  they  have  been  handed  over  to  the 
executor  of  divine  penal  judgment  in  the  natural  world,  this 
being  the  Hebrew  and  primitive  Christian  idea  of  Satan.  That 
is  to  say,  the  passage  expresses  an  imprecation  of  penal  suffering 
on  earth  with  a  view  to  spiritual  correction  and  deliverance. — 
\^May  learn :  more  accurately,  "  might  be  taught."  The  idea  of 
discipline  and  punishment,  as  well  as  instruction,  was  associated 
with  the  Greek  word  here  used.] 

ii.  1,  2.  Prayer  for  the  government  and  those  in  authority. 

ii,  3 — 7.  The  universality  of  the  redem23tion. 

5.  The  unity  of  God,  the  creator  of  all,  is  the  ground  of  the 
universality  of  salvation  (comp.  Eom.  iii.  30).  Conversely,  the 
Gnostics,  on  the  ground  of  their  dualism,  limited  salvation  to  a 
portion  of  mankind,  and  established  the  distinction  between 
sensuous  and  spiritual  men.  —  The  man  Christ  Jesus :  comp. 
Eom.  v.  15  ;  1  Cor.  xv.  21.  By  this  epithet  it  is  not  intended  to 
deny  the  higher  nature  of  Christ  (see  iii.  16),  but  only  expressly 
to  reject  the  Gnostic  error  that  Christ  was  only  a  seeming  man, 
and  as  such  only  appeared  to  die. 

6.  A  ransom:  as  in  Matt.  xx.  28. — To  he  testified  in  due  time : 
lit.  "  a  testimony  at  the  right  time."  Christ's  work  of  salvation 
here  spoken  of  is  the  subject  of  the  Christian  proclamation  of 
salvation,  which  is  made  known  to  the  w^orld  at  the  proper  time 
(comp.  Gal.  iv.  4,  when  the  fulness  of  the  time  urts  come). 

7.  Am :  "  was."  This  express  assurance  that  Paul  had  been 
appointed  (by  God)  to  be  an  apostle,  and  moreover  to  be  an 


92  I.  TIMOTHY.  [ii.  7 — iii.  2 

instructor  of  the  Gentiles  in  faith  and  truth  (i.e.  in  the  true 
doctrinal  belief),  serves  to  support  the  authority  of  the  author, 
who  speaks  in  his  name,  and  to  confirm  his  ecclesiastical  doctrines 
against  the  heretics. 

ii.  8 — 15.  The  position  of  men  and  of  women  in  the  community. 
15.  The  function  of  woman  is  not  to  come  forward  publicly 
and  to  teach,  but  to  devote  herself  to  domestic  life.  By  the 
fulfilment  of  her  duties  as  a  wife  and  a  mother  (assuming  that 
she  is  truly  Christian)  she  will  attain  her  own  personal  perfec- 
tion.— The  historical  motive  for  this  recommendation  of  marriage 
(which  does  not  agree  with  1  Cor.  vii.)  is  to  be  found  in  an 
opposition  to  the  ascetic  rejection  of  it  by  the  false  teachers  (see 
iv,  3). — In  child-hearing :  "  through  child-bearing." 

iii,  1 — 14  Concerning  hishops  and  deacons. 

1,  2.  BishoiD :  lit.  "  overseer."  The  word  also  occurs  in  Tit. 
1  7;  Acts  XX.  28  ;  Phil.  i.  1.  These  passages  leave  no  doubt  that 
originally  the  overseers  were  identical  with  the  elders  (presby- 
ters). Both  words  were  names  for  the  same  directors  of  the 
community.  The  difference  between  the  names  probably  con- 
sisted simply  in  this,  that  the  one  name  (inclining  to  the  Jewish 
custom)  referred  to  their  official  rank,  the  other  to  their  official 
duty.  Soon,  however,  it  became  customary  for  one  member  of 
the  presidential  board  to  appear  as  the  first  among  his  equals  in 
office.  And  then,  as  the  guidance  of  the  community  was  more 
especially  his  business,  the  name  of  overseer  (episcopos,  bishop) 
was  especially  assigned  to  him.  The  appearance  of  this  distinc- 
tion between  the  bishop  and  the  presbyters  in  the  Epistle  to  Titus 
(Tit.  i.  7,  comp.  ver.  5)  should  be  noticed.  In  the  passage  now 
before  us,  it  is  more  definitely  fixed. — {^This  is  a  trtie  saying :  lit. 
"  Faithful  is  the  saying."     The  Greek  is  the  same  as  in  i.  15.] 

2.  The  husba7id  of  one  wife :  comp.  "  the  wife  of  one  man,"  in 
V.  9,  on  the  widows  of  the  church.  In  both  cases,  the  words  can 
only  refer  to  the  prohibition  of  the  second  marriage  of  widows 
or  widowers.  It  was  the  universal  opinion  of  the  church  in 
those  ages  that  a  second  marriage  was  a  moral  blot.  It  was 
scarcely  allowable  even  for  the  laity  (Tertullian  forbade  it  to  them), 
and  in  the  case  of  clerics  it  was  absolutely  forbidden.  This  is 
still  the  custom  in  the  Greek  Catholic  church,  while  the  Komau 


iii.  2—15]  /.  TIMOTHY.  93 

church  went  on  to  the  celibacy  of  the  priesthood. — -Vigilant, 
sober:  "sober,  moderate." 

3.  Striker:  i.e.  ruffian,  bully.  —  [JSFot  greedy  of  filthy  lucre: 
better,  probably,  "  not  sordidly  desirous  of  gain ;"  but  the  best 
MSS.  omit  this  altogether,  and  it  has  probably  been  introduced 
from  ver.  8.] 

4.  Gravity  should  be  "  dignity." 

8.  Deacons :  According  to  Acts  vi.  1 — 6,  these  had  originally 
the  care  of  the  poor,  to  which  duty,  however,  were  soon  added 
various  other  services  in  relation  to  the  external  affairs  of  the 
community. —  [Grrave :  "  dignified,"  see  note  on  ver.  4,  where  the 
Greek  word  is  similar. — Not  greedy,  &c.,  see  note  on  ver.  3.] 

9.  The  mystery  of  the  faith :  the  mysterious  contents  of  the 
doctrine,  mysterious  because  it  is  only  made  known  through 
the  divine  revelation  in  Christ,  and  is  hidden  from  the  natural 
world. 

[11.  Grave :  "  dignified,"  or  perhaps  rather  "  demure,"  the  same 
word  as  in  ver.  8.] 

13.  Purchase  to  theinsclves  a  good  degree  should  be  "  obtain  for 
themselves  a  good  (lit.  "beautiful")  position"  (lit.  "step"),  i.e.  of 
eternal  blessedness,  as  is  indicated  also  by  the  boldness  in  the 
faith.  The  idea  is  as  far  from  being  genuinely  Pauline  as  that 
of  vi.  19,  and  hence  some  would  take  it  to  mean  a  higher  grade 
of  ecclesiastical  office ;  but  the  words  do  not  exactly  convey  that 
meaning,  and  moreover  this  would  assume  a  hierarchy  of  eccle- 
siastical grades  of  office  too  highly  developed  for  that  age. 

iii.  15,  16.   Tlie  church  and  its  creed  as  the  foundation  of  truth. 

15.  The 'pillar  a7id  ground  ("foundation")  of  the  truth.  This 
belongs  to  what  has  preceded,  not  to  what  follows.  It  describes 
an  attribute  of  the  community.  Comp.  1  Cor.  iii.  11,  where  Jesus 
Christ  is  the  sole  foundation,  and  Eph.  ii.  20,  where  the  apostles 
and  prophets  (in  the  church),  with  Jesus  Christ  as  the  corner- 
stone, form  the  foundation,  while  here  the  church  is  spoken  of 
outright  as  the  foundation.  Thus  we  see  how  the  genuine  Pauline 
idea  was  gradually  supplanted  by  the  Catholic  ecclesiastical  idea. 
■ — [Some  commentators,  maintaining  that  Christ,  not  the  church, 
is  the  foundation  of  the  truth,  endeavour  to  obtain  the  same 
meaning  here  by  ]Dlacing  a  full  stop  after  "  the  living  God,"  and 


94  I.  TIMOTHY.  [iii.  15— iv.  13 

then  continuing,  "  A  pillar  and  ground  of  the  truth,  and  con- 
fessedly great,  is  the  mystery  of  godliness,"  &c.] 

16.  Read,  "And  confessedly  great  is  the  mystery  of  godliness; 
who  was  manifested  in  the  flesh,"  &c. —  The  mystery  of  godli- 
ness: i.e.  the  mystery  which  is  the  subject  of  godly  conscious- 
ness and  of  ecclesiastical  belief  In  the  words  that  follow,  this 
is  expressed  in  a  form  in  which  we  may  probably  recognize  one 
of  the  oldest  liturgical  formulae  of  the  church. — "  Who  was  mani- 
fest," &c.  This  is  the  best  authenticated  reading.  "Who"  means 
Christ,  the  substance  and  subject  of  the  mystery. — Justified  in 
the  Spirit :  i.  e.  proved,  by  the  spirit  that  dwelt  in  him  and  pro- 
ceeded from  him,  to  be  tlie  true  Christ  (comp.  Eom.  i.  4). 

iv.  1 — 11.  Against  false  teachers. 

1.  Nov)  the  spirit  speaketh  expressly :  i.  e.  the  prophetic  spirit 
saith  plainly.  The  writer  throws  the  description  of  the  false 
teachers  of  his  own  time  into  the  form  of  a  prophecy  revealed  to 
Paul  by  the  spirit. 

4.  This  is  in  opposition  to  the  Gnostic  doctrine,  according  to 
which  many  kinds  of  matter,  and  especially  all  animal  flesh,  as 
being  produced  by  generation,  belonged  to  the  domain  of  unclean 
spirits,  and  therefore  it  was  defiling  to  men  to  partake  of  them. 
Comp.  the  discussion  in  Eom.  xiv. 

6.  Whereunto,  &c. :  "  in  which  thou  hast  ever  been." 

7.  Old  wives  should  be  "  old  women's." 

8.  Bodily  exercise :  ascetic  abstinence.  To  reject  this  entirely 
was  quite  foreign  to  the  Christian  sentiments  of  the  age ;  it  is 
only  the  one-sided  and  exaggerated  estimation  of  it  at  the  expense 
of  true  devotion  to  the  church  that  the  writer  desires  to  guard 
against. — Promise  of  the  life  that  now  is,  and  of  that  which  is  to 
come :  either,  the  promise  of  the  true  and  completely  satisfying 
life  here  and  hereafter,  or  else,  promise  (of  all  good  things)  for 
this  earthly  existence  and  for  the  future  existence  hereafter. 

iv,  12 — 16.  Personal  admonition  to  Timothy, 

12.  Of  the  believers :  "  to  the  believers." — [In  spirit :  not  found 
in  the  best  MSS.] 

13.  To  reading:  The  reading  of  the  scripture  in  congregational 
worship,  which  was  followed  by  edifying  and  instructive  exposi- 
tion ("exhortation"  and  "teaching"). 


iv.  14 — V.  4]  /.    TIMOTHY,  95 

14.  The  gift  that  is  in  thee  (i.e.  the  endowment  with  office), 
which  ivas  given  thee  hg  propJiecy  (i.e.  with  pious  wishes  and  bene- 
dictions), with  the  laying  on  of  the  hands  of  the  presbytery.  This 
can  only  refer  to  a  formal  ecclesiastical  consecration  such  as  was 
customary  in  the  church  in  the  second  century,  but  cannot  be 
proved  to  have  existed  at  an  earlier  period.  The  word  presbytery 
also  indicates  a  corporate  authority,  a  spiritual  rank  which  does 
not  occur  before  the  second  century. 

[15.  Profiting :  i.  e.  "  progress."] 

V.  1 — 16.  Pastoral  precepts  for  conduct  toward  old  aiul  young. 
The  widoios  of  the  chttrch. 

3.  Honour :  Most  modern  commentators,  following  the  exam- 
ple of  the  early  ones,  rightly  understand  this  of  consideration 
paid  to  the  widows  in  regard  to  the  support  they  received  from 
the  church  (comp.  loorthy  of  double  honour,  in  ver.  17).  That  are 
widows  indeed :  see  notes  on  vv.  5,  9.  Those  who  are  not  widoivs 
indeed  are  such  as  are  not  entirely  solitary  and  helpless,  and  so 
do  not  require  the  assistance  of  the  church  (see  ver.  4),  or  such 
as  do  not  conduct  themselves  quietly  and  modestly  as  widows 
should,  and  so  are  not  worthy  of  the  assistance  of  the  church  (see 
ver.  6). 

4.  Eead,  "  But  if  any  widow  have  children  or  grandchildren, 
let  these  first  learn  to  hold  them  that  belong  to  them  in  honour, 
and  to  show  gratitude  to  their  parents,"  &c.  This  translation  is 
required  both  by  the  construction  of  the  Greek  and  by  the  con- 
text. It  cannot  be  the  widow  who  is  to  learn,  but  the  children 
and  grandchildren,  first,  because  the  verb  is  in  the  plural,  and 
secondly,  because  the  second  requirement  only  applies  to  them. 
The  words  which  we  have  rendered,  "  hold  them  that  belong  to 
them  in  honour"  [lit.  "reverence  their  own  house"],  are  some- 
times rendered,  "rule  their  houses  piously;"  but  the  proper 
meaning  of  the  verb  is  "  reverence,"  "  treat  with  piety,"  which  is 
not  the  duty  of  widows  to  their  children,  but  of  children  to  their 
parents,  the  same  as  the  gratitude  which  follows.  It  would  be 
strange,  too,  if,  in  regard  to  the  assistance  given  by  the  church, 
widows  who  were  quite  alone  had  precedence  of  those  who  still 
had  children  to  provide  for.  The  latter  would  rather  require 
double  assistance.    On  the  other  hand,  it  is  perfectly  natural  that 


96  1.    TIMOTHY.  [v.  4—12 

those  who  were  quite  helpless  should  take  precedence  of  those 
who  had  children  or  grandchildren  capable  of  assisting  them  (see 
ver.  16). 

5.  Eead,  "  But  the  true  widow,  she  that  is  left  solitary,  hath 
fixed  her  hope  in  God,"  i.e.  upon  God  alone,  in  her  want  of  human 
care.  This  is  the  reason  why  the  church  should  take  charge  of 
her. 

7.  Give  in  charge :  "  command." 

9.  Eead,  "  As  a  widow  let  only  such  an  one  be  received  as  is 
not  under  threescore  years  old,"  &c.  What  is  meant  is  the  admis- 
sion into  the  class  of  widows  of  the  church.  These  can  neither 
have  been  deaconesses,  nor  simply  women  supported  by  the 
church.  If  the  former,  why  should  they  have  to  be  so  old  ?  If 
the  latter,  why  should  they  only  have  been  married  once,  and 
not  be  allowed  to  marry  again,  by  which  the  community  would 
be  relieved  from  the  burden  of  providing  for  them  ?  They  must 
have  had  a  certain  rank  and  position  of  honour  in  the  church, 
along  with  public  provision  that  was  made  for  them.  They  formed 
a  kind  of  spiritual  order,  of  which  a  higher  ecclesiastical  sanctity 
was  demanded,  especially  abstinence  from  second  marriage,  which 
was  regarded  as  a  blot  (see  note  on  iii.  2).  Admission  to  this 
order  seems  to  have  been  a  kind  of  reward  of  the  church  (an 
institution  for  public  provision)  for  such  widows  as  had  in  their 
earlier  life  deserved  well  of  the  church  (ver.  10).  Hence  others 
might  also  be  received  into  this  order  who,  without  really  being 
widows,  had  claims  to  such  recognition  and  reward.  In  that 
case,  though  really  virgins,  they  received  the  title  of  loidows  at 
the  same  time  as  the  honour.     This  explains  vv.  11  and  14. 

11.  Eead,  "  But  the  younger  women  receive  not  as  widows," 
&c.,  i.e.  young  women  (no  matter  whether  they  be  virgins  or 
widows,  in  the  strict  sense)  must  not  be  received  into  the  eccle- 
siastical order  of  "  widows,"  and  that  on  the  ground  that,  what- 
ever their  good  qualities  might  be,  they  have  not  the  moral 
maturity  and  firmness  which  is  the  indispensable  condition  of 
this  ecclesiastical  honour,  and  especially  because  it  is  to  be  feared 
that  they  may  not  be  willing  and  able  to  keep  the  vow  of  absti- 
nence from  marriage  that  is  required  on  their  admission  to  the 
order. 

12.  Eead,  "Having  their  sentence  that  they  have  violated 


V.  12—22]  /.    TIMOTHY.  07 

their  first  faithfulness,"  i.e.  broken  the  vow  to  abstain  from  mar- 
riage which  they  took  when  they  entered  the  ecclesiastical  order 
of  "  widows." 

14.  The  younger  women:  The  Greek  is  simply  "the  younger" 
in  the  fern,  plur.,  and  might  mean  either  "  the  younger  ones,"  i.e. 
the  younger  widows,  or  "  the  younger  women."  What  actually 
is  meant  is  the  younger  women  generally.  Instead  of  pressing 
hastily  into  a  spiritual  order  for  which  they  have  not  yet  the 
necessary  moral  maturity,  they  must  look  for  their  natural  calling 
in  marriage  (comp.  ii.  15).  This  is  consistent  with  all  that  has 
preceded.  On  the  other  hand,  if  we  suppose  tliat  the  widows, 
properly  speaking,  are  meant,  an  evident  contradiction  arises  at 
once,  inasmuch  as  second  marriage  would  then  be  recommended 
to  them,  which,  however,  was  made  a  ground  of  exclusion  from 
the  rank  of  "widows"  of  the  church  (ver.  9). 

15.  This  necessarily  supposes  that  this  institution  of  widows 
of  the  cliurch  had  been  in  existence  for  some  time,  and  so  points 
to  a  period  pretty  late  in  the  second  century. 

v.  17 — 22.  Precepts  for  church  discipline. 

17.  Double  honour:  i.e.  a  double  gift  of  honour. — UsjMciallj/ 
they,  &c. :  Thus  there  was  a  distinction  among  the  elders  between 
those  who  ruled  and  those  who  taught.  According  to  this,  the 
office  of  teacher  was  already  a  regular  office  in  the  community, 
which  was  by  no  means  the  case  at  the  beginning,  when  teaching 
belonged  to  each  member  as  the  Spirit  gave  it  to  him. 

18.  The  second  quotation  is  from  Luke  x.  7.  That  the  latest 
of  the  first  three  Gospels  is  here  quoted  as  "  Scripture"  is  striking 
evidence  of  the  late  date  of  the  Epistle. 

19.  20.  We  may  suppose  that  these  directions,  nominally 
addressed  to  Timothy,  were  practically  intended  to  apply  to  the 
bishop  of  the,  community  at  the  time.  This  pronouncing  sen- 
tence upon  the  presbyters  shows  us  a  very  definite  development 
of  the  episcopal  authority  over  the  presbytery. 

21.  The  selected  angels  are  angels  of  the  highest  rank  in  that 
hierarchy  of  angels  of  graduated  ranks  which  we  find  frequently 
alluded  to  in  the  Epistles  to  the  Colossians  and  Ephesians. 

22.  This  refers  either  to  receiving  into  the  church  again  those 
who  had  fallen  away  and  been  cast,  out  for  a  time,  or  to  the 
admission  of  catechumens  into  the  community.    By  hasty  admis- 

VOL.  III.  H 


98  7.   TIMOTHY.  [v.  22— vi.  13 

sion  of  unrepentant  sinners,  the  ruler  of  tlie  community  would 
become  an  accomplice  of  the  sinners. 

V.  23.  Admonition  as  to  diet. 
In  the  form  of  personal  warning  as  to  diet,  we  have  here  a 
contravention  of  the  one-sidedness  of  Gnostic  asceticism,  which 
had  especially  prohibited  flesh  (see  note  on  iv.  4)  and  wine. 

V.  24,  25.  Ecclesiastical  discipline. 
24.  The  connection  with  ver.  22  shows  without  any  doubt 
that  this  refers  to  the  moral  court  of  the  church,  and  gives  an 
additional  reason  for  prudence  in  accepting  catechumens  or  the 
lapsed.  It  should  further  be  noted  that  this  development  of 
regular  ecclesiastical  discipline  to  he  exercised  hy  the  bishop  assumes 
the  ecclesiastical  circumstances  of  the  second  century. 

vi.  1,  2.  Duties  of  servants. 

1.  His  doctrine  should  be  "The  doctrine,"  i.e.  Christianity. 

2.  Partakers  of  the  heneflt  should  be  "  and  undertake  to  do 
good."  They  (that  is,  the  masters)  occupy  themselves  in  the 
exercise  of  Christian  benevolence  to  all,  even  their  servants. 
This  is  an  additional  reason  why  Christian  servants  should  serve 
faithfully. 

vi.  3 — 5.  Against  false  teachers. 

3.  \^Teach  otherwise:  see  note  on  i.  3.] —  Wholesome:  i.e.  "sound" 
(see  note  on  i.  10). — The  doctrine  which  is  according  to  godliness: 
i.e.  which  is  in  harmony  with  the  common  consciousness  of  the 
church;  in  modern  language,  "good  doctrine." 

4.  Frond :  "  darkened."  [Lit.  "  enveloped  in  mist  or  smoke," 
or  metaphorically,  "in  clouds  of  conceit,"  and  then  "conceited, 
silly."] 

5.  Supposing  that  gain  is  godliness :  "  supposing  that  godliness 
is  a  means  of  gain." 

vi.  6 — 10.  Against  covetousness. 
vi.  11 — 14.  Ad,monition  to  fidelity  m  the  fight  of  faith. 
12.  Professed,  &c.,  should  be  "  confessed  the  fair  confession," 
i.  e.  in  baptism,  in  which  the  calling  had  been  realized. 

[13.  A  good  confession  should  be  "  the  fair  confession,"  as  in 
ver.  12.] 


vi.  14—20]  /.    TIMOTHY.  99 

14.  This  commandment  should  be  "the  commandment,"  i.e. 
the  rule  of  faith,  which  must  be  kept  pure  from  all  contamination 
or  falsification  by  false  teachers  (see  notes  on  i.  5,  vi.  20). 

vi.  15,  16.  Doxology. 
This  doxology,  which  only  occurs  here  in  this  form,  contains 
in  its  statements  concerning  God  in  part  contradictions  of  the 
Gnostic  theology,  and  in  part  connecting  links  with  it.  The 
Gnostic  theology  emphasized  the  super-sensuous  nature  of  God, 
but  offended  against  the  unity  of  God,  by  assuming  two  or  more 
final  causes  of  the  universe  (see  note  on  i.  17). 

vi.  17 — 19.  Admonition  to  the  rich  to  he  godly  and  benevolent. 
[18.   To  communicate :   i.  e.  to  share  their  possessions  with 
others.] 

19.  A  good  foundation :  i.  e.  a  foundation  for  their  salvation. 
This  merit  of  good  works  (comp.  iii.  13)  is  a  decided  departure 
from  the  genuine  Pauline  gospel  (see  note  on  Eom.  iii.  27). 

vi.  20,  21.  Against  false  teachers;  conclusion. 

20.  That  ivhich  is  committed  to  thy  trust :  either  his  office, 
which  he  should  take  care  to  fulfil  faithfully,  or  else — and  from 
what  follows  this  seems  more  probable — the  true  doctrine,  the 
ecclesiastical  tradition,  the  bearers  of  which  (from  the  secontl 
century  onwards)  were  the  bishops,  who  are  represented  by 
Timothy  throughout  the  Epistle  (see  note  on  v.  19). — Profane 
and  vain  babblings,  &c.,  should  be  "  unspiritual  and  profane 
chatter,  and  the  wrangling  of  the  falsely  so-called  gnosis." — In 
this  verse,  the  main  purpose  of  the  whole  Epistle,  as  set  forth 
at  the  beginning  (i.  3),  is  once  more  shortly  summed  up  in  con- 
clusion, and  this  time  with  direct  mention  of  the  opponents  that 
have  previously  been  only  indirectly  indicated  :  "  The  falsely  so- 
called  gnosis."  (knowledge).  This  shows  that  the  opponents  had 
openly  claimed  for  their  doctrine  the  title  of  "gnosis,"  i.e.  "higher 
knowledge,"  and  that  they  therefore  belonged  to  the  well-known 
historical  heresy  of  the  Gnostics.  This  claim  to  higher  knowledge 
which  is  involved  in  their  name  the  writer  rejects,  declaring  that 
they  have  adopted  this  name  falsely  (i.e.  without  any  right  to 
it),  inasmuch  as  their  doctrine  is,  on  the  contrary,  nothing  but 
"  profane  chatter,"  and  it  is  so  because  it  departs  from  the  faith 
(ver.  21). 

H  2 


THE  SECOND  EPISTLE  TO  TIMOTHY. 


i.  1,  2.  Introduction. 
1.  According  to  the  promise  of  life :  The  will  of  God,  that  has 
called  him  to  be  an  apostle,  is  the  same  that  has  promised  life  in 
Christ,  and  for  the  fulfilment  of  this  promise  has  established  the 
apostleship. 

i.  3 — 7.  Bememhrmice  of  the  early  life  of  Timothy,  and  his  family, 

in  the  faith. 
3.  TJiat  without  ceasing,  &c.,  should  be  "  as  without  ceasing," 
&c. :  This  is  a  parenthesis  explaining  how  it  is  that  he  comes  to 
give  thanks  for  Timothy,  but  not  expressing  the  subject  of  the 
thanksgiving.  Whether  the  subject  is  given  in  ver.  5  or  omitted 
altogether  may  be  left  undetermined. 

5.  The  un-Pauline  origin  of  the  Epistle  is  plainly  betrayed 
by  the  fact  that  the  Christian  faith  of  Timothy  is  treated  as  the 
same  thing  as  the  Jewish  faith  of  his  mother  and  grandmother, 
just  as  the  faith  of  Paul  (ver.  3)  has  been  represented  as  the 
unbroken  continuation  of  the  Jewish  faith  of  his  forefathers. 

6.  The  gift  of  the  office  is  referred  to  the  laying  on  of  hands 
in  the  dedication  to  the  office  (comp.  1  Tim.  iv.  14). 

7.  Spirit :  Not  simply  a  state  of  the  human  spirit  within,  but 
(in  accordance  with  the  objective  system  of  ideas,  from  which 
the  ancients  could  never  escape)  a  self-existent  spiritual  being 
imparted  by  God,  to  which  belong  the  attributes  of  power,  love, 
&c.,  whence  it  also  produces  the  corresponding  virtues  in  the 
spirit  of  man.  This  objective  system  imagines  the  various  spiri- 
tual states  of  man  to  be  separate  superhuman  spiritual  beings. 

i.  8 — 14.  Admonition  to  he  faithful  to  the  saving  gospel. 

8.  Be  thou  partaker,  &c.,  should  be  "  suffer  with  (me)  for  the 
gospel." 

9.  10.  The  author  of  our  salvation  is  God.     The  temporal 


i.  9 — ii.  2]  //.    TIMOTHY.  101 

tncans  by  which  it  is  brought  about,  and  the  beginning  of  its 
realization  in  the  individual,  is  the  holy  calling  of  the  individual 
(i.  e.  the  calling  to  God's  kingdom  by  means  of  the  gospel,  ver. 
11).  The  ground  of  our  salvation  is  found,  not  in  our  (merito- 
rious) works,  but  in  God's  own  purpose,  more  closely  defined  as 
His  grace,  which  ivas  given  (actually  applied)  to  2is  in  Christ  Jesus 
(as  existing  before  the  world  and  the  representative  of  the  com- 
munity, which  was  contained  in  germ,  as  it  were,  in  him,  comp. 
Eph.  i.  4)  he/ore  the  world  began,  but  is  noio  (properly,  "  has  now 
been")  made  manifest  (i.e.  has  appeared  historically,  and  so  been 
practically  made  known)  by  the  appearing  of  our  Saviour  (i.e. 
deliverer)  Jesus  Christ  (the  historical  Kedeemer,  whence  the  order 
in  which  the  names  stood  before  is  here  inverted),  ivho  hath 
abolished  death  (in  the  absolute  sense  of  the  word,  death  temporal 
and  eternal,  bodily  and  spiritual)  and  hath  brought  life  and  immor- 
tality (complete,  satisfying  and  imperishable  existence,  the  blessed 
state)  to  light  (introduced  life  and  immortality  into  the  historical 
existence  of  humanity)  through  the  gospel  (as  the  medium  of  the 
call  to  life,  which  offers  to  the  individual  the  fruit  of  the  redeem- 
ing work). — This  is  a  short  summary  of  the  fundamental  ideas  of 
the  Pauline  gospel,  approaching,  however,  to  the  later  Johannine 
development  and  application  of  them  (e.g.  "hath  brought  to  light"). 
12.  That  which  I  have  committed :  The  Greek  is  one  word, 
meaning  a  thing  committed  or  entrusted,  and  is  the  same  that  is 
used  in  1  Tim.  vi.  20  ;  but  here  it  is  evidently  employed  in  a 
different  sense.  The  context  shows  that  it  here  means  the  pos- 
session of  saving  grace  given  by  God,  the  preservation  of  which 
unto  the  day  of  judgment  he  hopes  to  obtain  from  the  power 
of  God.  It  is  probably  used  in  the  same  sense  in  ver.  14,  though 
there  it  might  possibly  be  the  same  as  in  1  Tim.  vi.  20. 

i.  15 — 18.  Personal. 
On  this  section  of  the  Epistle,  see  Introduction  (p.  85). 

ii.  1 — 13.  Exhortation  to  Christian  fidelity  in  suffering. 

1.  Be  strong :  properly,  "  become  strong." 

2.  Among  many  loitnesses :  i.e.  "  supported  by  many  witnesses." 
There  is  an  allusion  here  to  some  ceremonial  act.  It  may  have 
been  baptism  (see  1  Tim.  vi.  12),  or  it  may  have  been  consecration 
to  office  (2  Tim.  i.  6). 


102  //.    TIMOTHY.  [ii.  3—15 

3.  Endure  hardness :  "  suffer."  [So  the  best  MSS.  read,  or, 
more  exactly,  "  suffer  with  (me),"  as  in  i.  8,  see  note  on  that  verse.] 

5.  From  the  iUustration  of  warlike  contests  the  writer  passes 
on  to  the  peaceful  rivalry  of  the  games,  and  then  (ver.  6)  to  a 
third  illustration  of  a  hard-working  husbandman,  all  alike  to 
sliow  that  only  the  indefatigable  and  persevering  labourer  of 
Christ  may  hope  for  results  and  reward  of  his  labour,  but  that 
such  a  one  is  sure  of  his  reward. 

6.  Kead,  "  The  husbandman  who  exerteth  himself  shall  be  the 
first  to  partake  of  the  fruits." 

8.  According  to  my  gospel :  Reference  to  the  statement  of  the 
fundamental  principles  of  the  Pauline  Christology  found  in  the 
Epistle  to  the  Eomans  (Rom.  i.  3  sqq.),  probably  intended  at  the 
same  time  as  a  warning  against  heretical  dissent  in  regard  to 
Christology. 

9.  Is  not  hound :  It  is  being  preached  freely,  and  making  pro- 
gress (comp.  Phil.  i.  12  sqq.). 

10.  The  elect:  Those  who  already  believe  in  Christ,  or  will 
come  to  believe  in  him.  The  whole  body  of  believers  consists, 
according  to  the  Pauline  doctrine  of  predestination,  of  the  number 
of  those  whom  God  from  before  the  beginning  of  time  has  pre- 
destined to  be  saved  by  means  of  faith  in  Christ,  and  whom  He 
has  thus  chosen  out,  or  "elected,"  from  the  rest  of  humanity 
(Rom.  viii.  29  sq.,  ix. ;  Eph.  i.  4,  11 ;  Acts  xiii.  48). 

11.  Here  there  seems  to  be  a  reference  to  Rom.  vi.  5  sqq.,  but 
the  words  are  used  in  a  different  sense.  There  it  is  the  mystical 
fellowship  with  Christ  that  is  spoken  of  Here,  by  "  dying  with 
him,"  we  must  understand  the  death  of  the  body  for  Christ's  (i.  e. 
the  gospel's)  sake ;  and  by  "  living  with  him,"  the  bliss  beyond 
the  grave  which  is  the  reward  of  a  martyr's  death. 

13.  Read,  "  If  we  become  unfaithful,  he  remaineth  faithful 
(to  himself),  for  he  cannot  deny  himself"  That  in  which  God 
remains  true  to  himself  (taken  in  connection  with  the  words, 
"  he  will  deny  us,"  ver.  12),  can  only  be  his  penal  justice,  the 
fulfilment  of  his  threats  against  human  unfaithfulness.  As  to 
the  question  whether  that  is  a  genuine  Pauline  idea  or  not,  we 
have  only  to  compare  Rom.  xi.  29 — 32. 

ii.  14 — 26.  Exhortation  to  resistance. 
15.  Read,  "  Be  diligent  to  show  thyself  to  God  as  proved,"  &c. 


ii.  15—22]  //.  TIMOTHY.  103 

— Riglitly  dividing :  The  Greek  word,  which  does  not  occur  else- 
where, must  either  mean  to  "keep  rightly"  (not  to  wander  from 
the  right  way),  or  to  "handle  rightly"  (divide,  apply,  expound, 
&c.,  correctly). 

16.  The  false  doctrine,  which  is  described  in  the  same  way 
in  1  Tim.  vi.  20. — The  second  clause  should  be,  "  For  they  will 
proceed  further  and  further  into  ungodliness." 

18.  It  was  consistent  with  the  system  of  the  Gnostics  that 
they  rejected  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection  in  its  proper  (eccle- 
siastical) sense,  and  interpreted  it  as  a  spiritual  resurrection, 
consisting  in  the  awakening  from  the  death  of  error  unto  the 
true  knowledge. 

19.  2Vie  foundation  =  the  community  founded  by  God  (see 
note  on  1  Tim.  iii.  15). — Seal:  An  inscription,  such  as  is  put 
upon  a  foundation-stone  or  other  part  of  a  building  as  a  motto. 
The  two  sentences  of  the  inscription  which  the  community  bears 
express  its  consolation  and  its  duty :  (1)  They  that  believe  are 
known  by  God,  that  is,  they  are  the  objects  of  His  love  and 
providence ;  (2)  Every  one  that  nameth  the  name  of  Christ  (i.  e. 
professes  that  he  belongs  to  Christ),  must  depart  from  all  un- 
righteousness, i.  e.  must  abstain  entirely  from  everything  ungodly 
in  faith  or  in  life,  as  a  desecration  of  the  community  of  God. 

20.  The  actual  existence  in  the  community  of  unworthy 
members,  which  is  inconsistent  with  the  ideal  state  of  things 
in  ver.  19,  is  compared  with  the  diversity  of  household  vessels, 
which  are  not  all  noble,  i.e.  not  all  made  of  noble  material  and 
intended  for  noble  uses.  The  comparison  is  of  course  defective, 
in  so  far  as  the  less  honourable  vessels  are  necessary  to  the  house 
itself,  whereas  the  dishonourable  members  of  the  community  are 
an  unavoidable  evil.  Hence  this  point  of  view,  from  which  it  is 
intended  to  justify  God  in  regard  to  the  evil  in  the  world,  is 
exchanged  in  ver.  21  for  the  moral  point  of  view,  from  which  the 
writer  declares  what  should  be  the  conduct  of  the  individual  in 
relation  to  this  mixed  company. 

21.  Purge  himself  from  these  :  viz.  from  the  dishonourable 
vessels  (i.e.  members  of  the  community),  by  breaking  off  all 
fellowship  in  their  character  and  proceedings. 

22.  Them  that  call  on  the  Lord  =^  those  who  confess  him  (comp. 
Kom.  X.  12 ;  Acts  ii.  21). 


104:  II.  TIMOTHY.  [ii.  25— iii.  11 

25.  In  meekness  instructing  those  that  oppose  themselves :  It 
should  be  noticed  how  much  milder  and  more  tolerant,  and 
moreover  more  hopeful,  this  attitude  towards  the  false  teachers 
is  than  that  which  we  find  in  the  First  Epistle  to  Timothy. 
From  this  we  may  infer  that  we  are  here  concerned  with  an 
earlier  stage  in  the  development  of  the  false  doctrine. 

iii.  1 — 9.    The  characteristics  of  the  false  teachers. 

1.  See  note  on  1  Tim.  iv.  1.  The  prophecy  betrays  itself 
flagrantly  (vv.  5,  9)  as  a  description  of  the  present. 

2.  Men  =  the  great  majority,  so  that  we  have  here  a  descrip- 
tion of  a  general  tendency  of  the  age.  This  is  not  the  same  as 
"  some,"  in  1  Tim.  iv.  1,  who  have  fallen  away  from  the  faith  of 
the  church,  and  who  form  a  definite  company  of  heretics.  There 
it  is  a  false  doctrine  that  has  already  developed  into  a  schism 
that  is  attacked  ;  here  it  is  a  school  within  the  community  itself, 
and  a  school  that  is  to  be  condemned  on  moral  rather  than  doc- 
trinal grounds. 

3.  Despisers  of  those  that  are  good  should  be  "  unfriendly." 

5.  Denying  the  power  thereof:  They  do  not  allow  the  morally 
purifying  and  ennobling  power  of  godliness  to  be  realized  and 
have  its  proper  effect. 

6.  This  agrees  with  the  accounts  given  of  the  Gnostics  by  the 
Christian  Fathers,  who  tell  us  that  they  were  especially  fond  of 
watching  for  opportunities  of  making  proselytes  among  women. 
• — [Led  away,  &c.,  refers  to  the  women.] 

8.  Jannes  and  Jambres :  These  were  the  legendary  names  of 
the  Egyptian  wizards  who  tried  to  equal  Moses. — The  com- 
parison of  false  teachers  with  wizards  was  very  common  in  the 
early  church  (comp.  the  legend  of  Simon,  Acts  viii.). — Reprobate 
concerning  should  be  "  not  staunch  in." 

9.  The  apparent  inconsistency  of  this  verse  with  13  and  ii.  16 
may  be  explained  on  some  such  supposition  as  that  in  those 
passages  it  is  the  inner  deterioration  of  the  false  doctrine  itself 
that  is  spoken  of,  and  here  its  outward  extension  (propagandism) 
and  the  duration  of  its  existence. 

iii.  10 — 12.   The  apostles  sufferings  a  universal  example. 

10.  TIast  fully  hnoivn  should  be  "  didst  adhere  to." 

11.  If  Paul  were  the  writer  of  the  Epistle,  it  would  be  impos- 


iii.  11 — iv.  5]  II.  TIMOTHY.  105 

sible  to  understand  why  he  should  choose  to  instance  these  per- 
secutions of  the  first  missionary  journey  (Acts  xiii.  xiv.),  when 
Timothy  was  not  yet  in  his  company.  But  to  the  actual  writer 
of  the  Epistle  these  persecutions  as  the  first  lay  nearest  to  hand, 
aud  it  never  occm-red  to  him  that  Timothy  was  not  there  at  the 

iii.  13.  False  teachers. 
13.  Seducers  should  be  "  magicians." 

iii.  14 — 17.  The  advantage  of  an  intimate  acquaintance  with 
sacred  Scriijture. 

15.  And  that,  &c. :  i.e.  "and  knowing  that,"  &c.  He  is  to  be 
made  firm  in  the  faith  partly  by  remembering  Paul's  own  imme- 
diate teaching,  and  partly  by  seeing  that  it  is  in  accordance  with 
the  ancient  holy  Scriptures  (of  the  Old  Testament). 

16.  Eead,  "All  Scripture,  as  inspired  by  God,  is  profitable," 
&c. — The  term  "inspired"  is  generally  used  of  men  (e.g.  of  seers 
or  poets),  and  has  here  been  extended  from  the  writers  of  the  holy 
Scriptures  (comp.  2  Pet.  i.  21)  to  the  Scriptures  themselves.  By 
"  all  Scripture"  is  meant  the  Old  Testament  writings,  the  inspi- 
ration of  which  had  by  this  time  long  been  a  standing  article  of 
belief,  and  was  afterwards  extended  from  them  to  the  writings  of 
the  New  Testament. — Reproof,  correction,  instruction,  correspond 
to  the  three  stages  of  the  moral  life  :  repentance  of  the  evil, 
conversion  to  the  good,  progress  in  the  good  (repentance,  faith, 
sanctification). 

iv.  1 — 5.   Tlie  preacher's  hatile  with  false  teachers. 

1.  Eead,  "I  testify  before  God  ....  and  by  his  appearing 
and  his  kingdom."  These  serve  to  strengthen  the  assurance  or 
adjuration. — [The  best  MSS.  omit  therefoi^e,  and  read  "Christ 
Jesus"  for  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ^ 

3.  Sound  doctrine :  The  false  doctrine  is  here  depicted  as  the 
product  of  unbridled  wilfulness  and  extravagance,  in  opposition 
to  which  sober  earnestness  is  required. 

5.  Wcdchthou:  "  be  thou  sober."  [The  Greek  word  is  some- 
times used  in  the  sense  of  being  wary,  watchful,  but  its  strict 
meaning  is  "  to  be  sober."  In  its  literal  sense  it  is  used  especially 
of  abstinence  from  wine,  but  also  in  the  more  comprehensive 
sense  of  sobriety.] — Make  full  proof  of :  "perform  honourably" 
[lit.  "  fulfil'"]. 


106  77.   TIMOTHY.  [iv.  6—22 

iv.  6 — 8.  The  prospect  that  is  he/ore  the  apostle. 

6.  Eead,  "  For  I  am  already  being  offered."  A  similar  idea  is 
found  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Philippians  (ii.  17),  except  that  what 
the  apostle  had  there  set  forth  as  a  possibility,  which  he  did  not 
think  likely  to  be  realized  (see  Phil.  i.  25),  is  here  represented  as 
an  immediately  impending  reality.  There  may  be  a  reference 
here  to  the  passage  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Philippians. 

8.  A  (or  strictly,  "the")  crovm  of  righteousness :  The  victor's 
crown  as  the  reward  of  my  righteousness,  more  probably  than 
the  victor's  crown  which  consists  of  righteousness,  or  the  crown 
of  final  justification. 

iv.  9 — 21.  Personal  wishes,  memoranda  and  greetings. 

On  this  section,  see  the  remarks  already  made  in  the  Intro- 
duction (pp.  85  sq.). 

17.  The  preaching,  &c.,  should  be  "  the  proclamation  might  be 
made  complete,"  &c. ;  that  is  to  say,  that  the  gospel  might  be 
spread  abroad  in  every  direction. 

iv.  22.  Conclusion. 


THE  EPISTLE  TO  TITUS. 

i.  1 — 4.  Introduction. 

1.  According  to  the  faith,  &c. :  This  indicates  the  standard  of 
the  apostolic  teaching,  and  the  result  that  is  aimed  at  in  it. — 
After  godliness:  i.e.  "according  to  godliness." 

2.  Eead,  "  In  the  hope  of  eternal  life,  which  God,  who  is 
without  deception,  promised  before  primeval  [or  "  eternal,"  same 
word  in  Greek  as  "eternal"  life]  times." 

i.  5 — 9.  The  filling  of  spiritual  offices. 
-  5.  Ordain  elders  in  every  city :  What  is  meant  is  not  only  one 
elder  in  each  city  (comp.  "  them  that  are  set  over  you,"  in  the 
plur.,  IThess.  v.  12,  and  the  "bishops"  or  "overseers,"  Phil.  i.  1). 
In  each  city  there  were  several  elders  or  overseers,  among  whom, 
in  course  of  time,  one  came  to  be  distinguished  as  the  first  among 
his  peers,  and  then  to  be  called  "  the  overseer"  (bishop).  From 
a  comparison  of  this  verse  with  ver.  7,  we  may  perhaps  conclude 
that  at  the  time  when  the  Epistle  was  composed  a  distinction 
had  begun  to  be  made,  but  was  not  yet  fixed,  so  that  the  "  bishop" 
could  still  be  included  under  the  general  term  of  "  elders."  By 
the  time  when  the  First  Epistle  to  Timothy  was  written,  this 
was  already  changed  (see  notes  on  1  Tim.  iii.  1  sq.,  v.  19). 

[6 — 9.  Comp.  1  Tim.  iii.  2 — 7. — Faithful  children:  i.e.  pro- 
bably, "  children  who  are  believers." — Given  to  filthy  lucre :  same 
word  as  in  1  Tim.  iii.  8,  see  note.] 

9.  Eead,  "  Holding  fast  the  faithful  word  that  is  according  to 
the  doctrine,  that  he  may  be  powerful  both  to  exhort  in  sound 
doctrine  and  also  to  confute  gainsayers." — Faithful,  i.e.  to  be 
relied  upon,  is  the  word  which  corresponds  with  the  doctrine, 
i.  e.  with  the  doctrine  of  the  church.  Hence  we  have  here  already 
an  ecclesiastical  doctrinal  canon,  a  rule  of  faith.  This  supposes 
the  circumstances  of  the  second  century. 


108  TiTt:s.  [i.  10— ii.  8 

i.  10 — 16.  Polemic  against  false  teachers. 

10.  From  this  it  appears  that  the  false  teachers  were  mostly 
Jewish  Christians.  So  in  the  First  Epistle  to  Timothy,  they  are 
called  "teachers  of  the  Law"  (1  Tim.  i.  7).  Similarly,  vv.  14  sq. 
agree  entirely  with  1  Tim.  iv.  1 — 8,  with  its  Jewish  fables  and 
ascetic  precepts.  This  fits  the  earlier  Gnostics,  those  of  the  first 
quarter  of  the  second  century. 

12.  A  fro'phet  of  their  own :  The  saying  here  quoted,  which 
is  an  hexameter  verse  in  the  Greek,  "  Liars  the  Cretans  are,  evil 
beasts  and  indolent  bellies,"  is  probably  from  Epimenides,  who 
flourished  in  the  sixth  century  B.C.,  and  who  had  the  reputation 
among  the  ancients  of  being  a  great  soothsayer. 

15.  Unto  the  pure  all  things  are  pure:  i.e.  He  who  is  pure 
within,  in  his  feelings  and  desires,  is  not  morally  defiled  by  the 
use  and  enjoyment  of  external  things.  It  is  not  the  external 
things  that  are  morally  good  or  evil,  but  the  disposition  and 
will  of  the  man  who  either  uses  them  rightly  or  misuses  them. — 
"Both  (not  "even")  their  mind  and  conscience  are  defiled." — 
Their  7aind  =  t\\Q\x  disposition,  which  is  defiled  by  the  impure 
motives  connected  with  their  false  doctrine  (ver.  11). — Their 
conscience  is  defiled  by  the  consciousness  of  sin. 

[16.  Reprobate :  see  note  on  2  Tim.  iii.  8.] 

ii.  1 — 10.  Moral  exhortations  for  old  men  and  women,  for  young 
vjomen  and  men,  and  for  servants. 

[2.  Grave:  comp.  1  Tim.  iii.  4,  8,  11.] 

5.  Blasphemed:  see  1  Tim.  vi.  1.  The  meaning  is,  so  that 
the  gospel  may  not  be  brought,  by  the  immoral  conduct  of  its 
confessors,  into  the  evil  repute  from  which  Christianity  itself 
has  to  suffer  in  consequence  of  the  unworthiness  of  its  outward 
adherents.  We  find  that  the  opposite  to  this  (vv.  8, 10)  consists 
in  becoming  an  ornament  to  Christian  doctrine,  by  corresponding 
upright  conduct,  whereby  the  adversaries  are  made  ashamed. 
The  mainspring  of  Christian  morality  is  therefore  everywhere 
to  be  found  in  the  honour  of  God  and  Christ.  This  honour  rests 
upon  the  appearance  of  the  grace  of  God  (ver.  11)  "that  bringeth 
salvation"  to  men  (ver.  11),  as  well  as  effects  their  sanctification 
(ver.  12). 

8.  Of  you:  "  of  us."     [The  MSS.  vary.] 


ii.  11— iii.  1]  TITUS.  109 

ii.  11 — 15.   The  moral  disciiMiu  of  grace. 

12.  Worldly  lusts:  Either  such  as  are  characteristic  of  the 
world,  i.e.  of  natural  humanity;  or  such  as  are  directed  to 
worldly  things,  i.e.  to  external  and  perishable  possessions. — • 
Soberly,  righteously  (or  "justly")  and  godly:  Christian  virtue  in 
its  three  bearings,  as  right  conduct  towards  oneself  (self-control, 
especially  in  regard  to  sensual  indulgence),  towards  one's  neigh- 
bour (justice),  and  towards  God  (piety).  The  training  in  these 
virtues  is  the  work  of  the  grace  of  God  that  hath  appeared,  or 
of  the  gospel,  partly  as  holding  up  the  moral  ideal,  and  partly 
as  imparting  the  power  and  desire  to  attain  it. 

13.  Eead,  "  Waiting  for  the  blessed  hope  and  appearance  of 
the  glory  of  our  great  God  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ." — "The 
blessed  hope  and  appearance  ;"  i.e.  the  hoped-for  beatific  appear- 
ance, viz.  the  return  of  Christ  to  judgment  and  to  complete  his 
kingdom. — "  Our  great  God  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ :"  This  is 
probably  the  more  correct  translation,  so  that  "great  God"  is 
taken  with  Jesus  Christ  in  apposition.  Xot  only  is  the  construc- 
tion of  the  Greek  in  favour  of  this,  but  also  the  fact  that  it  is 
inconsistent  with  the  usage  elsewhere  to  take  the  "appearance" 
to  refer  to  God,  a  phrase  which  is  always  used  elsewhere  of  the 
appearance  of  Christ.  There  is,  of  course,  no  other  example  in 
the  New  Testament  of  the  use  of  the  word  "God"  as  a  simple 
definition  of  Jesus  Christ ;  but  in  otlier  Christian  writings,  con- 
temporary with  our  Epistle  (second  century),  it  is  not  uncommon. 
It  was  the  development  of  the  docetic  heresy,  which  treated 
Christ  as  a  purely  divine  and  only  apparently  human  being,  that 
first  made  the  church  somewhat  more  cautious  in  this  respect 
(see  note  on  1  Tim.  ii.  5). 

14.  The  surrender  of  Christ  to  death  is  here  said  to  be  with  a 
view  to  our  redemption  from  rebellion  against  the  Law  (i.  e.  im- 
morality) and  to  our  moral  purification.  Paul  himself  regards  it 
as  having  in  view  our  redemption  from  the  curse  of  the  Law,  or 
from  the  perdition  involved  by  the  Divine  wrath.  Practically, 
indeed,  the  two  things  are  altogether  the  same. 

iii.  1,  2.  Duty  toivard  authorities,  and  Christian  duty  generally. 

1.  To  he  suhject,  &c. :  "  to  be  subject  to  rulers  and  to  authorities, 
and  to  be  obedient." 


110  TITUS.  [iii.  3 — 15 

iii.  3 — 8.  The  Christian  s  former  conduct  in  sin;  re-hirth;  rencvml 
through  the  Holy  Spirit ;  good  -works. 

3.  Sometimes :  "  formerly." 

5,  6.  Eead,  "  By  the  bath  of  re-birth  and  the  renewing  (by 
means)  of  the  Holy  Spirit : "  Baptism  is  thus  described  here 
because  in  it  the  Holy  Spirit  is  imparted  ("poured  forth"  into  man 
[A.V.  shed  on  us]),  and  by  the  Holy  Spirit  tlie  inner  renewal  is 
then  completed,  and  a  new  man  is  formed  out  of  the  old  man. 

7.  Being  justified  by  his  grace:  "Justification,"  i.e.  the  divine 
declaration  of  righteousness,  here  appears  as  the  result  of  the 
communication  of  the  Spirit  (ver.  5).  We  find  the  reverse  of  this 
in  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians  (Gal.  iv.  6),  where  the  communi- 
cation of  the  Spirit  appears  as  the  result  of  sonship,  i.  e.  of  being 
justified.  Practically,  indeed,  the  one  cannot  be  separated  from 
the  other. — Heirs,  &c. :  "heirs  of  eternal  life,  according  to  the  hope." 

8.  To  inaintain  good  works  should  be  "  to  devote  themselves 
to  good  works."  Though  these  are  not  the  ground  of  our  deli- 
verance and  salvation  (ver.  5),  yet  they  must  be  a  necessary  con- 
sequence of  the  grace  bestowed  upon  us,  as  they  also  are  the 
final  aim  of  the  Divine  will  (comp.  ii.  14 ;  2  Tim.  iii.  17). 

iii.  9 — 11.  Against  false  teachers. 

9.  This  description  of  the  false  teachers  agrees  exactly  with 
what  is  said  in  1  Tim.  i.  4 — 8.  The  stage  of  development  which 
the  false  doctrines  have  here  reached  seems  to  be  intermediate 
between  that  of  2  Tim.  and  that  of  1  Tim.  The  false  teachers  are 
here  described  as  heretics,  i.e.  as  forming  a  definite  party  (a  sect)  in 
opposition  to  the  ecclesiastical  community,  but  still  they  are  not 
yet  formally  excluded  from  the  community,  and  hope  is  expressed 
of  their  conversion.  The  attack  upon  them  is  altogether  milder 
here  than  in  1  Tim.,  but  at  the  same  time  more  distinct  than 
in  2  Tim.  From  this,  in  agi'eement  with  other  indications,  we 
should  be  able  to  determine  the  chronological  order  of  the  three 
Epistles. 

11.  Subverted:  "perverted." 

iii.  12,  13.  Personal  matters. 

iii.  14.  Exhortation  to  good  loorks. 
[14.  Maintain :  see  ver.  8.] 

iii.  15.  Conclusion. 


THE   EPISTLE    TO    THILEMON. 


A  SLAVE  named  Onesimiis  ran  away  from  the  house  of  a 
Christian  of  Asia  Minor  named  Philemon,  who  was  one  of  Paul's 
own  converts  (ver.  19).  If  we  may  trust  the  Epistle  to  the 
Colossians,  Philemon  and  his  family  resided  at  Colossse  (Col. 
iv.  9).  Apphia,  who  is  mentioned  in  ver.  2,  was  no  doubt  his  wife, 
and  Archippus  (see  note  on  Col.  iv.  17)  one  of  the  members  of 
Philemon's  household.  In  his  flight,  Onesimus  appears  to  have 
been  exposed  to  some  danger,  which  led  him  to  have  recourse 
to  Paul,  who  was  then  a  prisoner.  It  is  probable  that  Paul  was 
in  Ptome,  rather  than  in  Csesarea,  at  the  time.  A  runaway  slave 
would  be  more  likely  to  malve  his  way  by  sea  to  the  imperial 
city  than  by  land  to  Csesarea.  In  Eome  he  would  more  easily 
find  a  place  of  concealment  and  means  of  supporting  himself; 
and  only  in  Eome,  where  Paul  resided  in  a  hired  house  of  his 
own  (Acts  xxviii.  30),  could  he  visit  him  without  great  risk. 
Paul  took  him  into  his  own  house,  converted  him  (ver.  10), 
became  deeply  attached  to  him  (vv.  12, 13,  16, 17),  and  sent  him 
back  to  his  master  with  this  Epistle,  in  which,  after  the  address 
and  salutation  (1 — 3),  and  a  conciliatory  introduction  (4 — 7),  he 
proposes  to  Philemon  that  he  should  forgive  the  offender  and  re- 
ceive him  as  a  brother  (8 — 21).  After  the  mention  of  the  apostle's 
personal  circumstances  and  movements  (ver.  22),  the  conclusion 
then  follows  (23 — 25).  This  charming  private  letter  is  regarded 
by  far  the  greater  number  of  judges  as  a  genuine  Pauline  Epistle, 
and  as  having  been  written  in  the  same  circumstances  as  the 
contemporary  Epistle  to  the  Colossians.    And  those  who  so  regard 


112  THE  EPISTLE   TO  FEILEMON. 

it  are  by  no  means  exclusively  adherents  to  traditional  opinion. 
Still  there  are  others  who  point  to  the  remarkable  resemblance 
between  this  and  some  portions  of  the  Epistles  to  the  Ephesians 
and  Colossians  (see  notes),  and  who  regard  it  as  a  third  with 
these  two,  and  involved  with  them  in  one  common  lot.  Hence 
it  appears  that  at  any  rate  the  unconditional  certainty  which 
attaches  to  the  authorship  of  the  four  great  Epistles  to  tlie 
Eomans,  Corinthians  and  Galatians,  is  wanting  even  in  the  case 
of  this  Epistle.  The  only  object  in  the  composition  of  an  imagi- 
nary Epistle  of  this  kind  would  have  been  to  set  forth  the  ideal 
Christian  relation  between  masters  and  slaves,  just  as,  in  the 
Epistle  to  the  Colossians,  the  slave  question  had  already  been 
fully  treated  (Col.  iii.  22—25), 


THE  EPISTLE  TO  PHILEMON. 


1.  A  prisoner :  see  note  on  Eph.  iii.  1. — Felloiolabourer :  Paul 
hopes  that  he  is  a  fellowlabourer;  inasmuch  as  he  is  president 
of  a  community  of  believers  meeting  in  his  house.  Aquila 
and  Priscilla  are  spoken  of  in  the  same  way  in  Eom.  xvi.  3 — 5. 

2.  Apphia :  The  mistress  of  the  house  is  also  concerned  in 
the  reception  of  the  runaway  slave. — "  The  community  in  thy 
house :"  see  note  on  Eom.  xvi.  3.  The  community  is  especially 
mentioned  because  Onesimus  was  now  to  belong  again  to  this 
more  intimate  circle. 

3.  See  note  on  Eom.  i.  7. 

4  =  Col.  i.  3;  Eph.  i.  16.— Eead,  "I  thank  my  God  always 
when  I  make  mention  of  thee  in  my  prayers." 

5  =  Col.  i.  4;  Eph.  i.  15. —  Toioard  the  Lord  Jesus  and  toward 
all  saints :  "  In  the  Lord  Jesus,  and  toward  all  the  saints."  [The 
prepositions  are  different  in  Greek,  perhaps  meaning  faith  in 
Christ  and  love  toward  the  saints.] 

6  =  Col.  i.  9  ;  Eph.  i.  17  sq. — Eead,  "That  the  participation  of 
thy  faith  may  become  effectual  through  the  knowledge  of  all  the 
good  which  ye  have  in  Christ  Jesus." — This  verse  states  the  object 
of  the  intercession  of  ver.  4,  viz.  that  those  who  share  in  his  faith 
(i.e.  the  saints  mentioned  in  ver.  5)  might,  by  means  of  the  faith 
of  Philemon,  efficient  in  love,  attain  to  actual  experimental 
knowledge  of  the  fulness  of  good,  which  is  at  the  Lord's  service 
in  the  community.  Hence  "  the  hearts  of  the  saints  have  been 
refreshed"  (ver.  7). 

7.  Bmvels:  "hearts."     [So  also  in  vv.  12,  20,  read  "heart."] 

8.  Might  he  much  hold :  i.  e.  might  with  a  bold  heart  and  with 
confidence,  without  fear  command  thee. 

9.  For  love's  sake :  so  that  I  may  not  interfere  with  the  free 
exercise  of  its  power. — Beseech :  "  exhort." 

VOL.  III.  I 


114  PHILEMON.  [10—25 

10.  Son  [lit.  "  child"]  :  so  Timothy,  as  converted  by  Paul,  is 
called  his  son  (1  Cor.  iv.  17). 

11.  Profitable:  Here  there  is  a  reference  to  the  name  Onesimus, 
which  means  useful  or  profitable. 

[12.  See  note  on  ver.  7.] 

13.  In  thy  stead  should  be  "  for  thee." — Philemon  regards  any 
service  done  to  Paul  as  done  to  himself,  so  that  Onesimus,  in 
becoming  Paul's  servant,  would  have  re-entered  the  service  of 
his  own  master. — Bonds  of  the  gospel :  bonds  into  which  the 
preaching  of  the  gospel  has  brought  him. 

14.  Thij  lenefit :  The  apostle  thinks  that  Philemon  would 
have  no  objection  to  his  retaining  the  slave  without  more  ado, 
but  he  sends  him  home  again  in  order  to  give  the  master  full 
opportunity  of  himself  freely  pardoning  him  and  receiving  him 
again  into  his  household. 

15.  Paul  has  abstained  from  interfering  in  the  matter  on  his 
own  account,  lest  he  should  perhaps  be  opposing  some  divine 
purpose. 

16.  Above  a  servant :  This  does  not  mean  that  Onesimus  is  to 
cease  to  be  a  servant. — In  the  flesh :  in  the  natural  and  earthly 
relation,  according  to  which  Onesimus  belonged  to  the  household 
of  Philemon. 

17.  Partner :  i.  e.  partner  in  Christianity. 

18.  If  he  hath  wronged  thee :  Onesimus  must  have  run  away 
in  consequence  of  some  neglect  of  duty  whereby  his  master  had 
suffered. 

19.  A  formal  and  legally  valid  agreement  on  the  part  of  the 
apostle  to  pay  what  is  owing.  At  the  same  time,  however,  the 
apostle  reminds  his  wealthy  convert  that  he  may  make  counter- 
demands  of  a  still  greater  amount. 

[20.  See  note  on  ver.  7.] 

21.  /  w7'ote :  "  I  have  written." 

22.  Comp.  Phil.  i.  25,  ii.  24. 

23.  24  =  Col.  iv.  10,  12,  14. 

[24.  Marcus,  Lucas :  better,  "  Mark,"  "  Luke,"  as  elsewhere.] 
[25.  Comp.  Gal.  vi.  18,  and  see  note  on  Phil.  iv.  23.] 


THE   EPISTLE   TO   THE   HEBKEWS. 


1.  The  Author  of  the  Epistle  and  his  Eeadees. 

Appended  to  the  Epistles  of  tlie  Apostle  Paul,  or  sometimes 
inserted  amongst  them,  we  find  an  Epistle  with  the  title,  "  To 
the  Hebrews."  [It  is  only  the  later  MSS.  that  call  it  the  Epistle 
of  Paul  to  the  Hebrews,  as  in  A.V.]  The  writer  does  not  give 
his  own  name,  as  Paul  does  in  all  his  Epistles,  nor  is  there  any 
express  indication  of  the  circle  of  readers  for  whom  the  Epistle 
is  intended.  The  opinion  of  the  early  church  concerning  it  was 
divided.  Even  in  the  East,  where  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 
was  accepted,  the  difference  of  its  form  from  that  of  the  other 
Pauline  Epistles  could  not  but  be  early  remarked.  In  Alex- 
andria, it  was  supposed  at  first  that  Paul,  being  an  apostle 
to  the  Gentiles,  was  prevented  by  modesty  from  putting  his 
name  to  an  Epistle  which  was  addressed  to  believing  Hebrews. 
Clement  of  Alexandria  (ob.  post  211  A.D.)  further  perceived  that 
Paul,  who  had  not  put  his  name  to  the  Epistle  lest  he  should 
frighten  the  Jewish  Christians  away  from  it,  could  not  have 
written  it  as  it  stands.  Paul  must  have  written  it  in  Hebrew, 
and  Luke  have  translated  it  into  Greek.  Origen  (ob.  254)  went  a 
step  further,  and  saw  that  the  Epistle  could  not  have  been  written 
by  Paul  at  all.  He  was  "rude  in  speech"  (2  Cor.  xi.  6),  and  it 
was  of  far  too  Hellenic  a  style  to  have  been  written  by  him. 
Nevertheless,  Origen  recognized  the  ideas  of  Paul  in  the  Epistle. 
Some  other  writer,  perhaps  Clement  of  Ptome,  as  some  said,  or 

i2 


116  TEE  EPISTLE   TO    THE  HEBREWS. 

Luke,  as  otliers  said,  must  have  set  forth  Paul's  ideas  in  this 
peculiar  style.  Notwithstanding  all  this,  however,  the  Epistle 
retained  its  position  in  the  East.  In  the  West,  on  the  other 
hand,  not  only  was  its  Pauline  authorship  denied,  but  the  Epistle 
itself  was  entirely  rejected.  A  Western  catalogue  of  the  sacred 
writings  of  the  New  Testament,  dating  from  the  end  of  the 
second  century,  speaks  of  it  under  the  title  of  an  Epistle  "  to  the 
Alexandrians,"  and  calls  it  an  "imposture"  foisted  upon  Paul  in 
support  of  the  heresy  of  Marcion.  Tertullian  (ob.  circa  220  A.D.) 
ascribes  the  EjDistle  to  the  Hebrews  to  Barnabas,  and  refuses  to 
give  it  full  recognition  as  holy  Scripture.  Even  Jerome  (ob.  420) 
mentions  that  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  is  rejected  among  the 
Latins.  About  this  time,  however,  Augustine  (ob.  430)  succeeded 
in  securing  the  recognition  of  the  Epistle  in  the  West. 

The  vigorous  spirit  of  the  Eeformation  emancipated  itself  from 
traditional  opinion  with  regard  to  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews. 
Lvither  says :  "  That  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  is  neither  from 
the  hand  of  St.  Paul,  nor  of  any  other  apostle,  is  proved  by  ii.  3. 
It  is  plain  that  the  writer  here  speaks  of  the  apostles  as  himself 
one  of  their  disciples.  For  St.  Paul  testifies  with  power  (Gal.  i.  1) 
that  he  has  received  his  gospel,  not  from  man,  but  from  God  him- 
self. And  beside  this,  it  containeth  a  hard  knot,  inasmuch  as  in 
the  sixth  and  tenth  chapters  it  altogether  denieth  and  refuseth  re- 
pentance unto  sinners  after  baptism ;  and  in  the  twelfth  chapter, 
ver.  17,  it  saith  that  Esau  sought  repentance  and  found  it  not. 
And  this  seemeth  to  be  contrary  to  all  Gospels  and  Epistles. 
And  although  one  may  explain  this,  yet  the  words  are  so  clear 
that  I  know  not  whether  it  be  suiiicient  so  to  do.  It  seemeth 
to  me  that  it  is  an  Epistle  composed  of  many  pieces,  and  treateth 
not  of  one  thing  in  an  orderly  manner.  However  this  may  be, 
it  is  an  exceeding  fine  Epistle,  which  speaketh  in  a  manner  both 
masterly  and  profound  of  the  priesthood  of  Christ,  out  of  the 
Scripture,  and  also  expoundeth  the  Old  Testament  finely  and 
richly,  so  that  it  is  evident  that  it  is  the  work  of  an  excellent 
and  learned  man,  who  was  a  disciple  of  the  apostles  and  had 


THE  EPISTLE  TO   THE  HEBREWS.  117 

learnt  much  of  them,  and  who  also  had  experience  in  the  faith, 
and  skill  in  the  Scriptures.  And  although  he  layeth  not  the 
foundation  of  faith,  as  he  himself  testifieth  (vi.  1),  which  also  is 
the  ofi&ce  of  an  a]30stle,  yet  he  buildeth  handsomely  thereupon 
gold,  silver,  precious  stones,  as  saith  St.  Paul  (1  Cor.  iii.  12). 
Wherefore,  though  perhaps  there  be  some  wood,  straw  or  hay 
mixed  therewith,  this  shall  not  hinder  us  from  receiving  so  fine 
a  doctrine  with  all  honour.  And  yet  we  may  not  make  it  equal 
to  the  apostolic  Epistles.  But  who  hath  written  it  is  unknown, 
and  is  like  to  remain  unknown  for  a  time ;  and  indeed  it  is  no 
great  matter."  And  yet  even  Luther  did  not  fail  to  make  the 
acute  suggestion  that  very  likely  Apollos  might  prove  to  be  the 
author  of  the  Epistle :  "  This  Apollo,"  he  says,  "  was  a  man  of 
great  understanding ;  the  Epistle  Hcbrcconun  is  surely  his."  And 
though  it  was  possible  for  Protestant  orthodoxy  to  fall  back  into 
the  traditional  theory  of  the  Pauline  authorship  of  the  Epistle 
to  the  Hebrews,  it  is  already  one  of  the  firmly  established  results 
of  scientific  scriptural  research  that  Paul  canrwt  have  heen  the 
author. 

In  the  Epistle  (ii.  3)  it  is  assumed  that  the  word  of  salvation 
was  first  proclaimed  by  the  Lord  himself,  and  then  came  down 
through  his  immediate  hearers  to  the  author  of  the  Epistle  and 
his  readers.  This  cannot  have  been  written  by  Paul,  who  declares 
that  he  received  his  gospel  from  God  and  Christ  without  any 
human  mediation  (Gal.  i.  12).  Paul,  who  had  passed  through 
the  chief  school  of  the  scriptural  learning  of  the  Jews  in  Jeru- 
salem, could  not  fall  into  such  errors  regarding  sacrifice  and  the 
sanctuary  as  we  meet  with  in  this  Epistle,  when,  for  example, 
it  represents  the  high-priests  as  sacrificing  daily  (vii.  27,  comp. 
X.  11),  or  places  the  altar  of  incense  in  the  Holy  of  Holies,  and 
the  golden  vase  of  manna  and  Aaron's  staff  in  the  ark  of  the 
covenant  (ix.  4).  Moreover,  the  writer  is  more  eloquent,  and  has 
a  greater  command  of  the  Greek  language,  than  Paul  (see  2  Cor. 
X.  10,  xi.  6).  The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  betrays  the  influence 
of  the  Alexandrian  school  in  a  greater  degree  than  the  Epistles 


118  THE  EPISTLE   TO   THE  HEBREWS. 

of  Paul,  both  in  its  interpretation  of  Scripture  and  in  its  actual 
doctrine.  In  its  scriptural  exegesis,  especially,  it  is  distinguished 
by  the  "types"  of  that  which  is  now  fulfilled,  which  it  finds  in 
Old  Testament  history  and  ordinances  of  the  Law.  In  doctrine 
it  is  distinguished  by  the  idea  of  the  divine  Logos  (word,  or 
reason),  by  means  of  which  the  Alexandrian  Jew,  Philo  (ob.  post 
A.D.  41),  had  combined  Old  Testament  theology  with  Greek 
philosophy,  here  appearing  as  an  expression  of  the  divine  nature 
of  Christ  (Heb.  i.  1,  2,  iv.  12,  13).  In  Philo,  the  divine  Logos 
was  the  Deity  as  revealed  and  immanent.  Our  author  not  only 
betrays  the  general  influence  of  Philo,  but  is  even  acquainted  with 
his  writings  (Heb.  xiii.  5).  He  also  departs  from  the  doctrine 
of  Paul  in  certain  details.  Paul  declares  that  the  Law  itself  is 
spiritual  (Eom.  vii.  14).  The  Epistle  to  the  Hebreivs  speaks  of 
a  Law  of  a  carnal  commandment  (vii.  16)  and  of  carnal  ordi- 
nances (ix.  10).  Paul  knows  of  no  mediator  except  in  the  case 
of  the  old  Law  (Gal.  iii.  19).  The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  calls 
Christ  the  mediator  of  the  new  covenant  (viii.  6,  ix.  15,  xii.  24). 

If,  on  the  one  hand,  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  cannot  have 
been  written  by  Paul,  on  the  other  hand  it  was  not  written  very 
long  after  his  death,  certainly  not  after  the  destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem and  the  temple.  It  must  have  been  written  while  the 
temple  service  at  Jerusalem  still  remained  in  all  its  magnificence. 
In  the  demonstration  of  the  deficiencies  of  the  Jewish  hierarchical 
system  there  is  no  mention  of  the  crushing  blow  which  it  suffered 
by  the  destruction  of  the  temple.  Sacrifice  is  expressly  spoken 
of  as  a  thing  of  the  present  (viii.  4,  ix.  8,  9).  It  is  true  that  the 
writer  never  speaks  of  the  temple,  but  only  of  the  Mosaic  taber- 
nacle ;  but  this  is  due  simply  to  the  fact  that  he  always  has  in 
view  the  original  Mosaic  institutions.  Erom  the  fact  that 
Timothy's  imprisonment  is  over,  and  that  there  is  a  greeting 
from  "  them  from  Italy"  (Heb.  xiii.  23,  24),  we  may  infer  that  the 
Epistle  was  written  soon  after  the  Neronian  persecution  of  the 
Christians,  which  took  place  in  the  year  64  A.D. 

The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  must  have  been  written^  then,  by 


THE  EPISTLE  TO   THE  HEBREWS.  119 

some  one  who  belonged  to  the  school  of  Paul  and  was  a  friend 
of  Timothy.  The  Levite  Barnabas  of  Cyprus  (Acts  iv.  36),  to 
whom  the  Epistle  was  sometimes  ascribed  by  the  ancient  Chris- 
tians, is  excluded  by  the  same  objections  in  regard  to  the  temple 
and  matters  connected  therewith  that  apply  to  the  Pauline 
authorship.  There  is  no  definite  reason  for  assigning  the  Epistle 
to  Luke.  Still  less  can  we  suppose  that  it  is  from  the  hand  of 
Clement  of  Eome.  Everything,  however,  converges  upon  A;pollos, 
the  subject  of  Luther's  happy  guess.  According  to  the  Book  of 
Acts  (xviii.  24  sqq.),  Apollos  was  a  learned  Jew  of  Alexandria, 
who,  having  been  already  "  instructed  in  the  way  of  the  Lord," 
came  to  Ephesus  (about  55  A.D.),  and  there  spake  and  taught 
diligently  the  things  concerning  Jesus,  although  he  knew  only 
the  baptism  of  John.  This  Christianity  of  the  baptism  of  John 
would  be  a  lower  Jewish-Essenic  stage  of  Christianity,  which  did 
not  yet  make  any  distinction  between  Christian  baptism  and  the 
baptism  of  John.  Apollos,  then,  would  come  from  Alexandria, 
where  he  may  very  well  have  passed  through  the  school  of  Philo, 
to  Ephesus,  being  at  this  time  a  Jewish  Christian  such  as  is 
described  in  Heb.  vi.  1,  2.  Here  he  was  instructed  by  Priscilla 
and  Aquila  in  the  teachings  of  Paul.  Having  been  thus  intro- 
duced to  the  Pauline  conception  of  Christianity,  he  went  into 
Achaia  (to  Corinth),  where  he  proved  from  the  Scriptures,  espe- 
cially to  the  unbelieving  Jews,  that  Jesus  was  the  Christ.  In 
Corinth,  Apollos  doubtless  carried  on  the  work  of  Paul,  but  after 
a  fashion  peculiar  to  himself,  standing  probably  in  somewhat  the 
same  relation  to  Paul  as  the  author  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 
(see  1  Cor.  i.  12,  iii.  4—6,  iv.  6).  In  the  First  Epistle  to  the  Corin- 
thians, which  will  have  been  written  in  the  year  58,  we  find  Apollos 
again  at  Ephesus,  where  he  is  mentioned  in  conjunction  witli 
Timothy  (xvi.  10 — 12),  with  whom  he  was  no  doubt  acquainted. 
In  the  Epistle  to  Titus  (iii.  13)  he  is  mentioned  again.  Apollos 
then  would  belong  first  to  the  school  of  Philo,  then  to  the  Jewish 
Christians  of  Alexandria,  to  whom  Christianity  might  very  well 
be  early  preached  by  the  immediate  hearers  of  Jesus  (Heb.  ii.  3), 


120  THE  EPISTLE  TO    THE  HEBREWS. 

and  then  in  Ephesus  he  joined  the  school  of  Paul  and  became 
intimately  acquainted  with  Timothy. 

If  Apollos  was  probably  the  author  of  the  Epistle,  we  must 
then  look  for  its  readers  in  Alexandria ;  and  there  is  even  an 
ancient  title  to  the  Epistle,  from  which  it  would  seem  that  it 
was  addressed  to  that  city.  Doubtless  the  name  "  Hebrews"  gave 
rise  early  to  the  idea  that  it  was  addressed  to  the  primitive 
Christian  community  in  Palestine.  Now  even  supposing  it  to 
be  possible  that  a  writer  might  employ  the  Greek  language  in 
addressing  the  members  of  that  community,  it  was  plainly  the 
custom  there  to  use  the  original  text  of  the  holy  Scriptures, 
and  not  the  Greek  version.  Our  author,  however,  rests  all  his 
arguments  upon  the  Greek  version  of  the  "  Seventy,"  with  all  its 
errors  (see  Heb.  x.  5,  xi.  21),  and  without  paying  any  attention 
whatever  to  the  original.  Heb.  ii.  3,  again,  would  not  be  ad- 
dressed to  the  original  community,  the  nucleus  of  which  was 
formed  by  hearers  of  the  Lord  himself.  No  one  could  use  towards 
that  community  such  language  as  we  find  in  Heb.  v.  12  sq., 
standing  as  it  did  at  the  head  of  all  Christendom.  The  good 
ofiices  to  the  saints  for  which  the  readers  are  praised  (Heb.  vi.  10) 
were  probably  directed  toward  the  primitive  community  in  Jeru- 
salem. Another  reason  why  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  cannot 
have  been  addressed  to  the  primitive  community  in  Jerusalem  is, 
that  that  community  had  suffered,  on  any  hypothesis,  more  than 
one  bloody  persecution  (Acts  vii.  54  sq.,  xii.  1  sq.),  including  that 
of  the  year  62,  in  which  James,  the  brother  of  the  Lord,  perished. 
The  Hebrews  of  our  Epistle,  on  the  contrary,  though  they  had 
suffered  some  tribulation  very  soon  after  their  conversion  (Heb. 
X.  32  sqq.),  and  still  had  contests  to  endure,  had  not  yet  come  to 
the  shedding  of  blood  (xii.  4).  The  Hebrews  of  this  Epistle  are 
certainly  not  to  be  sought  in  Palestine.  It  is  an  error,  again,  to 
suppose  that  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  was  written  to  an  un- 
mixed Jewish- Christian  community.  These  Hebrews  did  not  form 
a  complete  Christian  community.  They  were  only  a  part,  though 
they  may  have  been  the  original  nucleus,  of  a  larger  Christian 


THE  EPISTLE  TO   THE  HEBREWS.  121 

community,  from  whose  gatherings  they  were  already  beginning 
to  absent  themselves  (x.  25),  whose  rulers  they  are  exhorted  to 
obey  (xiii.  17),  and  whose  rulers  and  members  they  are  to  greet 
(xiii.  24).  This  also  shows  us  that  the  Epistle  cannot  have  been 
addressed  to  any  Palestinian  community. 

But,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Epistle  may  very  well  have  been 
addressed  to  Alexandria.  The  believing  Hebrews  of  that  city 
would  share  the  sufferings  of  the  Jewish  persecution  under  the 
emperor  Caius  Caligula  (38 — 41  A.D.)  (Heb.  x.  32  sq.).  Some 
time  during  the  long  period  of  its  existence  (ii.  3,  v.  11  sq.) 
the  community  may  have  lost  by  death  its  original  president 
(Heb.  xiii.  7).  They  might  remain  very  little  changed,  while 
the  Gentile  Christians  by  degrees  increased  till  they  were  in  a 
majority.  In  Alexandria  there  was  so  numerous  a  Jewish  popu- 
lation, that  the  hostility  of  the  unbelieving  Jews  which  the 
believing  Hebrews  had  to  contend  with  (Heb.  xii.  3  sq.)  is  no- 
where more  intelligible  than  here.  Jerusalem  was  not  too  far 
from  Alexandria  for  the  believing  Hebrews  to  be  able  to  keep 
up  active  intercourse  with  the  Jewish  hierarchy  by  means  of 
journeys  to  the  festivals  and  pilgrimages  from  time  to  time  to 
the  temple  (see  Acts  viii.  27,  xxi.  23  sq.,  xxii.  17,  xxiv.  11,  17). 
This  made  it  necessary  to  keep  them  to  their  Christian  faith 
(Heb.  iii.  1,  iv.  14,  x.  23),  and  only  here  could  such  an  Alexan- 
drian cultm-e  be  assumed  in  the  appeal.  That  the  earliest  Alex- 
andrian Fathers  know  nothing  of  the  Epistle  being  addressed  to 
Alexandria  is  also  explained  by  the  fact  that  these  "Hebrews" 
did  not  form  an  unmixed  Jewish-Christian  community,  but  only 
a  portion  of  a  larger  community  consisting  mainly  of  Gentile 
Christians.  Eelying  simply  on  the  fact  that  it  is  addressed  to 
"  the  Hebrews,"  they  supposed  that  it  must  have  been  intended 
for  the  Christians  in  Palestine.  The  supposition  that  it  was 
intended  for  Alexandria  also  falls  in  admirably  with  the  hypo- 
thesis that  it  was  written  by  ApoUos,  who  was  himself  one  of 
these  very  Hebrews  (Heb.  xiii.  19).  "We  can  scarcely  suppose 
that  it  was  addressed  to  Eome,  where  the  blood  of  Christians 


122  TEE  EPISTLE  TO   THE  HEBREWS. 

had  flowed  freely  since  the  year  54.  This  would  be  inconsistent 
with  Heh.  xii.  4. 

If,  then,  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  was  written  by  Apollos 
and  addressed  to  the  Jewish  Christians  of  Alexandria,  it  would 
be  written  soon  after  the  Neronian  persecution  of  the  Christians 
in  Eome,  which  took  place  in  the  year  64  (see  Heb.  xiii.  24),  and 
before  the  bloody  persecution  of  the  Jews  in  Alexandria  in  the 
year  QQ.  The  Christian  Hebrews  could  not  altogether  escape 
the  latter  persecution,  so  that  Heb.  xii.  4  could  not  have  been 
written  after  it.  It  is  no  wonder  that  the  Epistle  of  James 
(ii.  25),  which  was  written  during  the  reign  of  Domitian  (A.D. 
81 — 96),  refers  to  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  (xi.  31). 

The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  is  as  far  as  possible  from  being 
simply  a  doctrinal  disquisition.  It  is  written  to  meet  an  urgent 
necessity.  It  is  occasioned  by  the  danger  to  which  the  Christian 
confession  of  faith  on  the  part  of  the  Hebrews  was  exposed 
partly  by  its  persistent  adherence  to  the  mere  elements  of  Chris- 
tianity (Heb.  V.  12 — vi.  2)  and  partly  by  the  attempts  of  the 
unbelieving  Jews  to  persuade  it  to  actual  apostasy  from  Chris- 
tianity (Heb.  iii.  12,  vi.  4 — 6,  x.  28  sqq.,  xii.  25).  Hence  the 
repeated  exhortations  to  hold  fast  to  the  Christian  confession 
(Heb.  iv.  14,  x.  23,  comp.  iii.  1). 

2.   DOCTEINE. 

The  writer,  taking  his  stand  upon  Pauline  principles,  addresses 
himself  to  a  Jewish  Christianity  which  had  scarcely  passed 
beyond  unbelieving  Judaism,  and  now  threatened  to  relapse  into 
it.  He  is  familiar  with  the  Epistles  of  Paul  (comp.  Heb.  vi.  6 
with  Gal.  iii.  1 ;  Heb.  v.  12  with  1  Cor.  iii.  2 ;  Heb.  v.  14  with 
1  Cor.  ii.  6 ;  Heb.  x.  30  with  Eom.  xii.  19,  &c.).  Like  Paul  (Gal. 
iii.  19),  he  represents  the  Old  Testament  religion  of  the  Law  as 
proclaimed  by  angels  (Heb.  ii.  2).  Like  Paul  (Gal.  iii.  19 ;  Eom. 
V.  20,  X.  4),  he  attaches  only  a  temporary  validity  to  the  Law, 
lasting  until  the  time  of  reformation,  i.e.  until  the  redeeming 


THE  EPISTLE   TO   THE  HEBREWS.  123 

sacrifice  of  Christ  (Heb.  ix.  10).  Like  Paul  (Gal.  iii.  16  sq.),  he 
speaks  of  the  seed  of  Abraham  whose  cause  the  Son  of  God  took 
upon  himself  (Heb.  ii.  16).  Like  Paul,  he  emphasizes  the  im- 
portance of  faith  (Heb.  iv.  2,  vi.  12),  and  expressly  affirms  the 
righteousness  of  faith  (Heb.  x.  38,  39,  xi.  6,  33).  But  the  Paul- 
inism  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  betrays  at  the  same  time 
the  peculiar  school  of  Jewish  Alexandrianism,  which  was  most 
fully  developed  in  Philo,  both  in  its  manner  of  dealing  with 
Scripture  and  also  in  its  doctrine  concerning  the  divine  Logos. 

In  its  freedom  with  regard  to  the  Jewish  religion  of  the  Law, 
the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  is  not  inferior  to  Paul  himself.  Here, 
as  in  Paul's  writings,  the  religion  of  the  Law  is  preceded  by 
justification  by  faith ;  but  here  the  latter  is  not  limited  to  faith 
in  the  promise  of  a  seed  which  was  given  to  Abraham.  Here 
justifying  faith  is  more  generally  conceived,  and  is  more  com- 
prehensive (Heb.  viii.  11)  than  in  Paul's  writings.  Faith  is 
confidence  in  that  which  is  hoped  for,  an  unhesitating  con- 
viction of  unseen  things  generally.  Abraham  no  longer  appears, 
as  in  Paul,  as  the  forefather  of  all  believers.  Saving  faith  begins 
as  far  back  as  Abel,  Enoch,  Noah,  and,  in  the  case  of  Abraham 
himself,  with  the  departure  from  Canaan.  The  religion  of  the 
Law  is  represented  by  our  author,  as  by  Paul,  as  only  an  indirect 
revelation  of  God  through  angels  (Heb.  ii.  2),  and  by  angels  to 
whom  the  present  world  has  been  put  in  subjection  (ii.  5).  He  lays 
even  more  emphasis  upon  the  imperfection  of  the  Law  than  Paul 
himself.  The  Law  is  weak  and  powerless,  and  has  made  nothing 
perfect  (vii.  18, 19).  Its  ordinances  are  dead  works  (vi.  1,  ix.  14). 
The  Law  has  only  a  shadow  of  good  things  to  come  (x.  1).  It  is 
no  longer  in  itself  spiritual  (as  in  Ptom.  vii.  12,  14),  but  contains 
carnal  commandments  and  precepts  (Heb.  vii.  16,  ix.  10).  With 
its  diverse  commands  concerning  meats,  it  is  positively  alien  to 
Christianity  (xiii.  9).  Further,  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  it 
is  not  the  moral  element  in  the  religion  of  the  Law,  as  in  Paul's 
writings,  but  the  priesthood  and  the  sacrificial  system,  that  are 
chiefly  dwelt  upon. — The  nou-Levitical  priesthood  of  Melchi- 


124  THE  EPISTLE  TO   TEE  HEBREWS. 

sedec,  to  which  Abraham,  the  ancestor  of  the  Jews,  and  indeed 
of  Levi  himself,  did  homage  with  the  offering  of  tithe,  takes  pre- 
cedence in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  (cli.  vii.)  of  the  priesthood 
of  the  Law.  It  was  not  until  after  this  important  phenomenon 
that  the  sanctuary  of  the  Law  was  erected,  the  worldly  sanctuary 
of  this  creation  (ix.  1,  11),  only  a  type  of  the  true  heavenly 
sanctuary  (ix.  24),  only  a  shadow  of  heavenly  things  (viii.  5, 
X.  1).  The  very  repetition  of  the  sacrifices  of  the  Levitical 
priests  proves  their  incompleteness  (x.  1,  2).  They  produce  only 
a  purifying  of  the  flesh  (ix.  13),  do  not  take  away  sins  (x.  11), 
and  do  not  purify  the  conscience  (ix.  9). — The  writer  of  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  (viii.  7  sqq.)  finds  in  Jer.  xxxi.  31  sqq. 
proof  of  the  imperfection  of  the  old  covenant  in  the  announce- 
ment of  a  new  covenant,  with  laws  for  the  mind  written  in  the 
heart.  Holy  Scripture  itself  has  declared  the  old  covenant 
obsolete,  in  that  it  waxetli  old  nigh  unto  vanishing  away.  Long 
after  the  existence  of  the  priesthood  of  the  Law,  an  eternal  priest 
of  the  order  of  Melchisedec  is  promised  in  Psalm  ex.  4  (Heb. 
V.  6,  10,  vi.  20,  vii.  11,  17). 

In  its  view  of  the  new  covenant,  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 
to  some  extent  differs  throughout  from  Paul,  looking  less  to 
what  takes  place  in  man  than  to  what  is  offered  on  the  part  of 
God.  Here  the  doctrine  of  the  nature  of  Christ  comes  into  the 
foreground.  Paul  himself  conceived  of  the  Ptedeemer  only  as 
the  heavenly  man  (1  Cor.  xv.  47;  Ptom.  v.  15;  Phil.  ii.  6  sq.). 
The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  availing  itself  of  Philo's  doctrine 
of  the  Logos,  proceeds  to  the  deity  of  Christ.  In  connection 
with  the  Solomonic  doctrine  of  Wisdom  (comp.  Heb.  i.  2,  3,  with 
Wisd.  of  Sol.  vii.  25 — 27),  Christ  is  raised  to  the  sphere  of  divine 
beings  (Heb.  i.  3,  8) ;  and  in  another  passage  (iv.  12,  13)  he  is 
distinctly  declared  to  be  the  divine  Logos.  Here,  then,  the 
Christian  Messianic  faith  is  already  amalgamated  with  the 
Philonic  idea  of  the  Logos.  The  Eedeemer  is  conceived  of  as  the 
central  point  of  a  supernatural  world.  He  is  the  reflection  of 
the  Divine  glory,  the  imprint  of  the  Divine  nature,  for  whom  and 


THE  EPISTLE  TO   TEE  HEBREWS.  125 

through  whom  are  all  things  (i.  2,  3,  ii.  10).  The  deity  of  Christ 
is  an  expression  of  the  exaltation  of  the  new  revelation  of  God 
above  the  old  revelation  in  Judaism  by  means  of  angels. 

The  new  complete  revelation  of  God  took  place  in  the  first 
instance,  according  to  our  Epistle,  by  the  Son  of  God  taking 
upon  himself  flesh  and  blood,  and  becoming  like  unto  men 
(ii.  14,  17,  comp.  x.  5).  He  shared  the  universal  human  lot  of 
temptation,  yet  remained  without  sin  (iv.  15,  vii.  26).  He  learnt 
obedience  in  the  school  of  suffering  (v.  7,  8).  Yet  it  was  only 
by  his  death,  as  the  perfect  sacrifice,  that  he  completed  the 
redemption  proper  as  a  purification  from  sins  (i.  3).  Here  there 
is  nothing  new  in  the  mere  conception  of  the  death  of  Christ  as 
a  sacrifice,  but  what  is  new  is,  that  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 
represents  the  Eedeemer  as  the  true  high-priest,  who  offered  him- 
self, once  for  all,  as  a  blameless  sacrifice  (ix.  14),  and  who,  by 
his  OM^n  blood,  has  founded  the  new  covenant  (ix.  13  sq.,  x.  29, 
xiii.  20).  His  death  was  a  unique  sacrifice  (vii.  27,  ix.  14,  26, 
28,  x.  10,  11,  14)  for  heavenly  things  (ix.  23),  capable  of  taking 
away  sins.  Thus  the  priesthood,  after  the  order  of  Melchisedec, 
was  fulfilled.  The  Eedeemer  has  now  become  the  high-priest 
of  heaven  (iv.  14,  vi.  19,  20,  viii.  2,  ix.  11,  24).  He  sits  at  the 
right  hand  of  God  (i.  3,  viii.  1,  x.  12,  xii.  2)  as  a  priest  for  ever 
(vii.  21  sqq.).  Thus  by  his  blood  he  has  consecrated  the  entrance 
to  the  heavenly  sanctuary  (x.  19),  and  purified  the  consciences 
from  dead  works,  to  serve  the  living  God  (ix.  14). 

The  doctrines  of  the  deity  of  Christ  and  his  high-priesthood 
have  given  a  new  turn  to  Paul's  doctrine  of  justifying  faith.  On 
the  one  hand,  it  has  been  placed  more  in  the  background,  while, 
on  the  other  hand,  it  has  been  made  more  universal.  But  still 
saving  faith  forms  a  distinct  contrast  to  the  Jewish  religion  of 
the  Law  (vi.  1,  ix.  10).  The  manifestation  of  the  heavenly 
priesthood  has  revealed  the  worthlessness  of  the  earthly  (viii.  4). 
The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  occupies  a  position  distinctly  opposed 
to  Judaism.  The  Jews,  who  were  accustomed  to  speak  of  the 
Gentiles  without  more   ado   as   sinners,   are  here   themselves 


126  TEE  EPISTLE  TO   THE  HEBREWS. 

described  as  sinners  (xii.  3,  comp.  vii.  26).  The  writer  not  only 
calls  upon  the  believing  Hebrews  to  go  on  beyond  the  elements, 
the  lower  Jewish-Christian  stages  of  Christianity,  and  advance 
at  length  to  Christian  perfection  (vi.  1  sq.),  but  he  bids  them 
depart  entirely  from  the  Jewish  religious  communion  (xiii.  13). 
The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  in  fact,  openly  teaches  that  apostasy 
from  Moses,  of  teaching  which  Paul  is  accused  by  the  Jewish 
Christians  in  the  Book  of  Acts  (Acts  xxi.  21).  The  universality 
of  Christian  salvation  which  is  declared  in  ii.  9,  15,  is  by  no 
means  surrendered  again  by  a  limitation  to  the  natural  posterity 
of  Abraham  and  the  Jewish  people  in  ii.  16,  17. 

The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  is  one  of  the  most  important  of 
those  writings  which  effected  the  separation  of  Christianity  from 
Judaism.  It  is  in  every  respect  a  worthy  sequel  to  the  Epistles 
of  Paul,  and  by  its  amalgamation  of  Paulinism  and  Jewish  Alex- 
andrianism  it  successfully  prepared  the  way  for  the  peculiar  doc- 
trinal development  of  Christianity. 

3.  Argument. 

The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  opens  straight  away  with  a  state- 
ment of  the  superiority  of  the  Christian  revelation  of  God  to  the 
Jewish  (i.  1 — 4).  In  this  statement  the  writer  depends  mainly 
upon  the  deity  of  Christ,  but  also  points  out  at  the  same  time 
his  high-priesthood.  The  scriptural  proof  of  the  exaltation  of 
Christ  as  the  Son  of  God,  and  himself  God,  above  the  angels,  is 
immediately  followed  by  an  exhortation  to  consider  well  the  new 
revelation  through  the  Son,  which  is  higher  than  the  ancient 
revelation  through  angels  (i.  5 — ii.  4).  The  goal  also  of  the  sal- 
vation of  the  new  revelation  exalts  it  above  the  angels  to  whom 
the  present  world  is  subject.  The  prospect  of  a  future  world, 
which  will  be  given  into  subjection  to  man,  has  been  revealed 
to  the  believers  through  the  death  and  glorification  of  the 
Redeemer,  who,  as  early  as  the  latter  part  of  this  section  of  the 
Epistle,  is  spoken  of  as  a  high-priest  (ii.  5 — 18).    Jesus  is  then 


THE  EPISTLE   TO   THE  HEBREWS.  127 

set  forth  as  apostle  and  high-priest  of  the  Christian  faith,  and 
his  exaltation  above  Moses  in  this  respect  is  pointed  out  (iii. 
1 — 6).  By  his  interpretation  of  a  passage  of  Scripture  (Ps.  xcv. 
7 — 11)  the  writer  then  endeavours  to  preserve  the  Hebrews  from 
apostasy,  and  to  direct  them  to  the  divine  invitation  to  a  rest 
that  awaits  them  (iii.  7 — iv.  13). 

The  way  has  now  been  prepared  for  the  proper  kernel  of  the 
Epistle  (iv.  14 — x.  18),  in  which  is  developed  the  high-priesthood 
of  Jesus  in  opposition  to  the  Levitical  priesthood  of  Judaism. 
First,  the  readers  are  admonished,  having  Jesus  as  high-priest  and 
Son  of  God,  to  hold  fast  the  confession  of  faith,  which  was  endan- 
gered by  Judaism  itself  (iv.  14 — v.  10).  The  contrast  between  the 
high-priesthood  of  Christ  and  the  high-priesthood  of  the  Jewish 
Law,  leads  on  to  the  conception  of  Christ  as  a  high-priest  after  the 
order  of  Melchisedec  (Ps.  ex.  4).  This  new  conception  of  Christ, 
however,  the  writer  cannot  set  forth  to  the  Hebrews  whom 
he  is  addressing,  without  first  censuring  the  low  stage  of  their 
Christianity,  and  warning  them  of  the  terrible  results  of  apostasy 
(v.  11 — vi.  20).  It  is  not  till  he  has  done  this  that  he  proceeds 
to  expound  the  superiority  of  Christ's  high-priesthood  after  the 
order  of  Melchisedec  to  the  Levitical  priesthood  of  Judaism  (vii. 
1 — X.  18).  This  exposition  is  as  an ti- Jewish  as  it  is  Alexandrian, 
and  indeed  Philonic.  The  perfection  of  the  high-priesthood  of 
Christ,  of  whom  Melchisedec  was  the  type,  consists,  according  to 
our  author,  on  the  one  hand  in  the  revelation  of  heavenly  things, 
of  which  the  Law  with  its  earthly  sanctuary  was  but  a  shadow, 
and  on  the  other  hand  in  the  inner  change  in  the  mind  which 
is  purified  and  reconciled  by  it. 

The  section  which  then  follows  (x.  19 — 39)  shows  us  that  even 
this  doctrinal  exposition  has  also  a  very  practical  aim,  for  here 
the  readers  are  admonished  firmly  to  maintain  their  Christian 
faith,  and  not  to  forsake  the  gatherings  of  the  Christian  com- 
munity; then  a  second  time  a  terrible  judgment  is  threatened 
against  those  who  fall  away  from  the  Christian  faith,  and  the 
readers  are  reminded  of  the  firmness  they  displayed  in  the  period 


128  TEE  EPISTLE  TO   THE  HEBREWS. 

immediately  following  their  conversion.  The  mention  of  faith 
next  leads  to  a  scriptural  demonstration  of  the  fundamental 
doctrine  of  Paulinism,  the  doctrine  of  righteousness  by  faith 
(xi.),  which  was  stUl  a  stumbling-block  to  the  Jewish  Christians. 
After  this  doctrinal  exposition,  the  writer  returns  again  to  his 
exhortation  (xii.).  The  Hebrews  are  exhorted  to  stand  fast  in 
the  fight  against  Jewish  hostility,  and  once  more  emphatically 
warned  against  apostasy  from  Christianity. 

In  conclusion  (xiii.),  we  have  further  special  exhortations,  in 
which  the  general  purpose  of  the  whole  composition  is  not  lost 
sight  of.  Jewish-Christian  doctrines  are  set  down  as  alien  to 
Christianity  (xiii.  9).  Complete  separation  from  the  Jewish 
religious  communion  is  demanded  (xiii.  13).  The  letter  then 
closes,  in  genuine  epistolary  style,  with  the  personal  wish  of 
the  writer  soon  to  be  restored  to  his  readers  (xiii.  18  sq.),  the 
announcement  of  his  speedy  arrival,  in  company  with  the  libe- 
rated Timothy  (xiii.  23),  and  general  greetings. 


THE  EPISTLE  TO  THE  HEBEEWS. 


i.  1 — 4.  The  superiority  of  the  Christian  revelation  to  the  Jcvnsh, 

Here  the  two  fundamental  ideas  of  the  deity  and  the  high- 
priesthood  of  Christ  are  emphatically  brought  forward. 

2.  Whom  he  hath  apiwinted  heir  of  all  things :  The  inheritance 
of  the  world  was  regarded  as  the  promise  given  to  Abraham 
(Eom.  iv.  13).  The  Christians  are  joint-heirs  with  Christ  (Eom. 
viii.  17),  heirs  of  God  through  Christ  (Gal.  iv.  7).  Christ  is  heir 
of  all  things,  as  the  head  of  the  future  world. — "Through  whom  he 
also  made  the  world- ages"  (not  the  worlds) :  Christ  is  here  repre- 
sented as  the  divine  word  (the  Logos)  of  Jewish  Alexandrianism 
as  developed  by  Philo,  according  to  which  the  whole  creation 
took  place  by  means  of  the  word  (Logos)  of  God ;  just  as,  accord- 
ing to  the  pre-Philonic  Wisdom  of  Solomon  (Wisd.  vii.  27),  all 
things  were  created  by  means  of  the  wisdom  of  God.  The  great 
world-ages  are  two,  the  present  and  the  future  (Matt.  xii.  32). 
The  future  world-age  is  also  mentioned  in  Heb.  vi.  5. 

3.  Eead,  "Who  being  the  reflection  of  his  glory  and  the 
imprint  of  his  being,  and  bearing  all  things  with  the  word  of 
his  power,  and  having  made  the  purification  of  our  sins  through 
himself,  hath  sat  down  on  the  right  hand  of  the  majesty  on 
high." — "  Eeflection  ....  imprint :"  The  Alexandrian  book  of 
the  Wisdom  of  Solomon  had  already  used  similar  language  with 
regard  to  the  wisdom  of  God  (Wisd.  vii.  26).  The  school  of 
Philo  conceived  of  the  Divine  wisdom  expressly  as  the  word 
(Logos)  of  God. — "Bearing  all  things  with  the  word  of  his 
power:"  According  to  Philo,  the  word  (Logos)  of  God  is  the 
immanent  God  himself.  In  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  the 
Son  of  God  is  so  conceived  of. — "  Having  made  the  purification 
of  our  sins  through  himself :"  The  Son  of  God,  in  his  manifesta- 
tion in  the  flesh  upon  earth,  has  completed  the  redemption  of 
sinful  humanity  by  his  death.    Here  we  have  already  an  iudica- 

VOL.  III.  K 


130  HEBREWS.  [i.  3— ii.  1 

tion  of  the  high-priestly  office  of  Christ. — "  Hath  sat  down  on 
the  right  hand  of  the  majesty  on  high :"  Christ  exalted  after  his 
redeeming  death, 

i.  5 — 14  Demonstration  of  Christ's  exaltation  ahove  the  angels 

from  various  'passages  in  the  Old  Testament. 
All  the  quotations  in  this  passage  are  from  the  Greek  version. 

6.  Eead,  "  But  when  he  shall  again  have  brought  in  the  first- 
born into  the  world,"  &c. — The  quotation  is  from  Ps.  xcvii.  7, 
here  applied  to  the  return  of  Christ  in  his  glory.  It  is  only  in 
the  Greek  version  that  there  is  any  mention  of  the  worship  of 
all  the  angels. 

7.  Spirits  should  be  "  winds." 

8.  9.  From  Ps,  xlv.  6  sq.,  where,  according  to  our  author, 
Christ  is  addressed  as  God. — A  sceptre  of  righteousness :  lit.  "  a 
sceptre  of  straightness." — Therefore  God,  even  thy  God,  &c.  : 
"  Therefore,  0  God,  thy  God  hath  anointed  thee,"  &c. 

10 — 12.  Prom  Ps.  cii.  25 — 27.  Only  in  the  Greek  version 
could  the  writer  find  Christ  spoken  of  as  God. 

ii.  1 — 4.  Exhortation  to  consider  well  the  neiu  revelation. 

Christ  being  thus  exalted,  the  new  revelation  through  the  Son 
of  God  should  be  the  more  earnestly  considered  and  taken  to 
heart.  It  is  far  higher  than  the  old  revelation  of  the  religion  of 
the  Law  which  the  writer  of  our  Epistle  (ii.  2),  like  Paul  (Gal, 
iii.  19),  represents  as  proclaimed  by  angels  (comp,  also  Acts 
vii.  53),  a  view  derived  from  the  description  of  God's  retinue  of 
angels  at  the  giving  of  the  Law  (Ps.  Ixviii.  11 ;  comp.  also  the 
Greek  version  of  Deut.  xxxiii.  2),  of  which  Paul  and  the  author 
of  our  Epistle  avail  themselves  to  depreciate  to  some  extent  the 
religion  of  the  Law.  [The  reading  of  the  last  words  of  Deut, 
xxxiii.  2  is  doubtful.  The  Greek  version  has,  "  On  his  right 
hand  were  angels  with  him."  Psalm  Ixviii.  11  should  probably 
be  rendered,  "  Yahveh  giveth  the  word ;  the  women  who  tell  the 
tidings  are  a  great  host,"  the  real  reference  being  then  to  some 
victory  over  the  enemies  of  Israel.] 

1.  "  Lest  at  any  time  we  should  be  swept  past"  (not,  let  them 
slip) :  i.  e.  lest  we  should  be  carried  away  past  salvation.  Human 
life  is  represented  under  the  figure  of  a  stormy  voyage,  and  sal- 
vation as  the  harbour  in  which  we  are  safe. 


ii.  2 — 7]  HEBREWS.  131 

2.  For  if,  *&c. :  "  For  if  the  word  spoken  through  angels  was 
made  firm." 

3.  If  toe  neglect  should  be  "if  we  have  neglected." — By: 
"through." — The  salvation  preached  at  first  through  the  Lord 
himself  has  been  confirmed  by  those  who  heard  him,  not  only 
to  the  readers,  but  also  to  the  writer  himself.  Hence  neither 
could  Paul  be  the  writer,  nor  the  primitive  community  in  Pales- 
tine the  readers. 

4.  Bead,  "  God  bearing  witness  together  w4th  them  by  signs, 
wonders  and  divers  powers,  and  by  communication  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  according  to  his  will." — God  himself  here  bears  witness  in 
favour  of  the  preaching  of  the  gospel  by  means  of  miraculous 
powers  and  gifts  of  the  Spirit  (comp.  1  Cor.  xii. ;  Gal.  iii.  5). 

ii.  5 — 18.  The  superiority  not  only  of  the  origin  hit  also  of  the 

goal. 
The  salvation  of  the  new  revelation  is  superior  to  the  angels, 
to  whom  the  present  world  is  subject,  not  only  in  its  origin,  but 
also  in  its  goal. 

ii.  5. 

It  is  not  the  future,  but  only  the  present,  world  that  is'  subject 
to  the  angels.  The  later  Jews  regarded  the  seventy  or  seventy- 
two  nations  of  the  world  as  under  the  protection  of  special 
guardian  angels  (Dan.  x.  13,  20 ;  Ecclesias.  xvii.  17;  comp.  also 
the  Greek  version  of  Deut.  xxxii.  8).  [The  Greek  version  of 
Deut.  xxxii.  8  reads,  "  When  the  Most  High  divided  the  nations, 
the  sons  of  Adam  whom  he  scattered,  he  set  the  bounds  of  the 
nations  according  to  the  number  of  the  angels  of  God."] 

ii.  6—9. 
The  writer  interprets  Ps.  viii.  5 — 7  (where  the  Psalmist  says 
that  God  has  made  man  a  little  lower  than  the  angels,  and  made 
all  things  subject  unto  him)  to  mean  that  God  has  made  man 
inferior  to  the  angels  for  a  little  while,  and  that  finally  all  things, 
even  the  angels,  shall  be  subject  to  him.  Thus  the  words  of  the 
Psalm  have  already  been  fulfilled  in  Jesus,  who  has  tasted  death 
for  all  and  has  been  crowned  with  glory. 

6.  Visitest  should  be  "  regardest." 

7.  Thou  madest  him,  &c.,  should  be,  "  for  a  little  while  thou 
hast  made  him  lower  than  the  angels,"  &c. 

k2 


132  EEBBEWS.  [ii.  9—16 

9.   Who  was  made,  &c.,  sliould  be,  "  wlio  for  a  little  while  was 
made  lower  than  the  angels." 

ii.  10. 
Eead,  "  For  it  became  him  to  make  perfect  through  sufferings, 
as  the  general  of  their  salvation,  him  for  whose  sake  are  all  things, 
and  through  whom  are  all  things,  after  he  had  brought  many- 
sons  unto  glory." — "Him  for  whose  sake,"  &c. :  i.e.  the  Son  of 
God  (Heb.  i.  2).— "After  he,"  &c. :  i.e.  the  Son  of  God  upon 
earth. — "General:"  i.e.  leader. 

ii.  11—18. 
The  perfecting  of  the  Son  through  sufferings  was  necessary 
for  the  sake  of  the  fellowship  between  the  Eedeemer  and  the 
redeemed.     Tlie  Redeemer  calls  those  who  are  to  be  redeemed 
his  brothers  (Ps.  xxii.  22),  expresses  as  a  man  his  confidence  in 
God  (Is.  viii.  17),  and  he  as  the  Son  of  God  speaks  of  the  re- 
deemed as  children  of  God  (Is.  viii.  18)  and  therefore  his  bro- 
thers.    In  order,  therefore,  that  he  might  be  made  like  unto 
them,  he  has  taken  upon  him  flesh  and  blood ;  yea,  he  has  even 
suffered  death  in  order  that  he  might  take  away  the  power  of 
the  devil,  who  (through  sin,  see  Eom.  v.  12)  had  the  power  of 
death,  and  that  he  might  deliver  men  from  the  slavery  of  the 
fear  of  death.     He  takes  up  the  cause,  not  of  angels,  but  of  the 
seed  of  Abraham.     The  phrase  "seed  of  Abraham"  need  not  be 
taken  in  the  natural  sense,  but  may  very  well  be  understood, 
as  in  Paul,  of  the  spiritual  descendants  of  Abraham,  i.  e.  men 
who  are  believers.     So  also  the  "house  of  God"  (iii.  6,  x.  21)  is 
Christendom;  "that  within  the  veil"  (vi.  19)  is  heaven  (comp. 
ix.  24).     The  veil  is  interpreted  as  the  flesh  of  Jesus  (x.  20). 
The  camp  (xiii.  13)  is  the  Jewish  community.     Because  the  Son 
of  God  espouses  the  cause  of  (believing)  men,  it  was  necessary 
that  he  should  be  made  like  them  in  all  things,  that  he  might 
be  merciful,  and  as  a  faithful  high-priest  atone  for  the  sins  of 
the  people,  i.e.  not  only  of  the  Jewish  people,  but  of  the  true 
(believing)  people  of  God,  i.e.  of  Christendom  (see  iv.  9,  xiii.  12). 
12.  Church:  "community." 

14.  Are,  partakers :  lit.  "  have  been  made  partakers." 
16.  Read,  "  For  he  taketh  not  up  the  cause  of  angels,  but  of 
the  seed  of  Abraham  doth  he  take  up  the  cause." 


iii.  1—7]  HEBREWS.  133 

iii.  1 — iv.  13.  Exhortation  not  to  lose  sight  of  the  Christian 
confession  and  trifle  it  away  in  Mosaism. 
iii.  1. 
The  Hebrews  are  exhorted  to  give  heed  to  the  apostle  (i.e. 
one  who  is  sent  by  God)  and  high-priest  of  the  Christian  con- 
fession, Jesus,  who  has  brought  the  new  revelation  of  Christian- 
ity, and  completed  the  reconciliation  of  the  believers  with  God. 
This  is  the  first  express  exhortation  to  hold  fast  to  the  Christian 
confession,  which  was  endangered  by  Mosaism  (comp.  iv.  14, 
X.  23). 

iii.  2—6. 
The  exaltation  of  Christ  above  Moses.    Christ  is  faithful  unto 
God,  who  hath  made  him.   Moses  was  only  faithful  in  the  house 
of  God  as  a  servant  (Num.  xii.  7).    Christ,  as  Son  of  God,  is  over 
the  house  of  God,  which  in  its  perfection  is  Christendom. 

2.  Appointed  should  be  "made"  or  "created." 

3.  Inasmuch  as  should  be  "  in  the  same  degree  that." 

5.  To  he  spoken  after :  "  to  be  spoken." 

6.  His  oivn  should  be  "  His,"  i.  e.  God's. 

iii.  7— iv.  13. 
Discussion  of  Ps.  xcv.  7 — 11,  with  a  view  to  the  preservation 
of  the  Hebrews  (addressed  in  the  Epistle)  from  falling  away 
from  the  Cliristian  confession  into  pure  Mosaism.  Long  after  the 
Mosaic  time  they  are  called  upon,  "  to-day,"  if  they  hear  the  voice 
of  God,  not  to  harden  their  hearts,  as  did  the  people  of  the  forty 
years'  wandering  in  the  wilderness,  who  forfeited  their  admission 
into  the  divine  rest.  Let  the  Christian  Hebrews  look  to  it 
that  no  one  in  unbelief  fall  away  from  the  living  God  into 
Mosaism  (iii.  12).  Still  that  same  word  "to-day"  is  uttered, 
still  the  promise  remains  of  admission  to  the  divine  rest.  This 
promise  is  not  only  later  than  God's  rest  after  creation  (iv.  4), 
but  it  is  also  later  than  the  Mosaic  age,  and  has  by  no  means 
been  fulfilled  by  Joshua's  couquest  of  the  promised  land  (iv.  8). 
This  promised  divine  rest  lies  altogether  beyond  Mosaism.  Let 
them  beware  then  of  that  unbelief  whereby  those  who  lived  in 
the  days  of  Moses  forfeited  their  admission  to  the  rest  which  God 
had  provided !  The  word  (Logos)  of  God,  which  speaks  in  the 
holy  Scripture,  is  able  to  judge  the  thoughts  and  intent  of  the 
heart — yea,  it  is  omniscient  (iv.  12,  13) ;  and  in  saying  this  the 


134  HEBREWS.  [iii.  7— V.  4 

writer  gradually  comes  to  identify  the  word  of  Scripture  with 
the  divine  Logos  of  the  Alexandrian  school,  with  which  at  tlie 
beginning  of  the  Epistle  (i.  2,  3)  he  practically  identified  the  Son 
of  God,  with  whom  indeed  he  is  really  concerned  throughout. 

10.  And  they,  &c.,  should  be  "  and  they  (with  emphasis  on 
they)  did  not  recognize  my  ways." 

16.  Eead,  "  For  who  were  they  that  heard  and  provoked  ? 
Was  it  not  all  that  came  out  of  Egypt  by  Moses  V 

18.  Believed  not  should  be  "  were  disobedient." 

iv.  1.  Fear:  i.e.  "  take  care." — To  come  short :  strictly,  "  to  have 
come  short." 

3.  If  they  shall  enter :  "  they  shall  not  enter." — There  should 
only  be  a  comma  at  the  end  of  this  verse. 

5.  If  they  shall :  "  they  shall  not." 

6.  Unbelief  should  be  "  disobedience." 

8.  Jesns :  "  Joshua."     [Jesus  is  the  Greek  form  of  the  name.] 

9.  A  rest :  lit.  "  a  keeping  of  sabbath." 

11.  Unbelief  should  be  "  disobedience." 

12.  Quick:  i.e.  "living." — Discerner :  "judge." 

13.  With  whom  ive  have  to  do  should  be  "  of  whom  we  speak." 

iv.  14 — V.  10.  Exhortation  on  the  ground  of  the  ^possession  of  this 

high-priest. 
Those  who  possess  this  high -priest  are  exhorted  to  remain 
faithful  to  the  Christian  confession,  and  not  to  be  blinded  or 
enticed  away  by  the  brilliancy  of  the  Jewish  high-priesthood. 

iv.  14—16. 

14.  Eead,  "Who  has  passed  through  (not  into)  the  heavens" 
(comp.  vii.  26,  ix.  11;  Eph.  iv.  10),  i.e.  into  the  Holy  of  Holies, 
where,  exalted  above  all  the  heavens,  he  enjoys  full  communion 
with  God. 

15.  The  feeling  of :  "  sympathy  with." 

V.  1—6. 
V.  2.  That  are  out  of  the  way :  "  that  go  astray." 

3.  The  Jewish  high-priest  has  to  offer  sacrifice  not  only  for 
the  sins  of  the  people,  but  also  for  his  own  sins  (comp.  vii.  27). — 
By  reason  hereof :  i.e.  because  of  his  infirmity  (ver.  2). 

4.  He  has  been  called  to  his  offi.ce  like  Aaron. 


V.  5 — vi.  3]  HEBREWS.  135 

5,  6.  And  Christ  also  has  a  divine  calling  as  Son  of  God 
(Ps.  ii.  7),  and  as  a  priest  for  ever  after  the  order  of  Melchisedec 
(Ps.  ex.  4). 

V.  7—10. 

In  the  days  of  his  flesh,  in  the  school  of  suffering,  in  bitter 
agony  of  soul  (comp.  Matt.  xxvi.  39  sqq.),  he  learnt  obedience ; 
but  at  the  same  time  he  was  heard,  so  that  now  he  is  able  to 
become  the  author  of  eternal  salvation  unto  all  who  obey  him. 

7.  In  that  he  feared:  "because  he  held  God  in  honour"  [lit. 
"because  of  his  piety"]. 

10.  Called:  "Named"  [lit.  "Addressed"]. 

V.  11 — vi.  20.  The  luriter  censiires  in  his  readers  the  loiv  stage  of 
their  Christianity/. 

V.  11—14. 

After  so  long  a  time,  they  are  still  only  beginners  in  Christian 
knowledge,  requiring  milk,  and  not  perfect  so  as  to  be  able  to 
bear  solid  food  (comp.  1  Cor.  ii.  6,  iii.  2). 

11.  Eead,  "Whereof  we  should  have  much  to  say  and  hard  to 
explain,  since  ye  have  become  dull  of  hearing." 

[12.  For  the  time:  i.e.  considering  the  time  that  has  elapsed 
since  your  conversion. — First  principles :  lit.  "  elements  of  the 
beginning."] 

14.  Of  full  age:  "perfect." — To  discern:  better,  "to  distin- 
guish between." 

vi.  1—3. 

Read,  "Wherefore  let  us  now  leave  the  beginnings  of  the  doc- 
trine of  Christ,  and  go  on  unto  jperfection,  not  laying  again  the 
foundation,"  &c. 

The  readers  are  exhorted  now  at  last  to  rise  from  the  mere 
elements  of  Christian  doctrine  to  perfection,  and  not  to  lay  over 
again  the  mere  foundations.  Eepentance  from  dead  works  is 
repentance  from  following  the  Jewish  Law  (comp.  ix.  14).  A 
believing  trust  in  God  was  wanting  to  Judaism,  notwithstanding- 
all  its  belief  in  the  One  God.  The  doctrine  of  baptisms  and 
of  laying  on  of  hands  (confirmation)  was  the  elementary  teaching 
which  was  given  along  with  baptisms,  often  repeated  after  the 
fashion  of  Essenism  and  the  school  of  John  (comp.  Acts  xviii.  25, 
xix.  3),  and  with  the  imparting  of  the  Holy  Spirit  by  the  laying 
on  of  hands  (comp.  Acts  viii.  17,  xix.  6).     The  doctrine  of  the 


136  HEBREWS.  [vi.  3 — vii. 

resurrection  of  the  dead  and  an  eternal  judgment  would  be  espe- 
cially likely  to  be  forsaken  by  the  Alexandrian  Jews.  But  all 
these  are  the  mere  elements  of  Christianity. 

vi.  4—6. 

May  those  who  have  almost  fallen  back  into  Judaism  consider 
the  terrible  penalty  of  apostasy  from  Christianity  to  Judaism, 
this  new  crucifixion  of  the  Son  of  God  (comp.  Gal.  iii.  1)  of  which 
there  is  no  repentance. 

Eead,  "  For  those  who  have  once  been  enlightened,  and  have 
tasted  the  heavenly  gift  and  been  made  partakers  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  and  have  tasted  the  good  word  of  God  and  the  powers  of 
the  world  to  come,  and  have  fallen  away,  it  is  impossible  to 
renew  again  unto  repentance,  since  they  crucify  unto  themselves 
the  Son  of  God,  and  put  him  to  an  open  shame." 

vi.  7—20. 

The  writer  still  hopes  for  the  best,  especially  when  he  calls  to 
mind  the  love  which  the  Hebrews  have  shown  by  their  services 
to  the  saints  (vi.  10),  i.e.  in  gifts  of  love  to  the  primitive  com- 
munity at  Jerusalem  (comp.  2  Cor.  viii.  4 ;  Rom.  xv.  25).  Let 
them  only  hold  fast  their  hope  unto  the  end,  and  be  assured  of  the 
promise  which  God  has  confirmed  by  an  oath  (Gen.  xxii.  16  sq.) 

7.  By  rvhom  should  be  "  for  whose  sake." 

10.  Labour  of  love  should  be  simply  "  love." 

[14.  Blessing  I  toill  bless  thee,  and  inultiplying  I  loill  multi2')ly 
thee:  a  Hebraism  =  "I  will  assuredly  bless  thee  and  multiply 
thee."] 

[16.  Tlie  greater :  i.e.  that  which  is  greater,  or  perhaps  him 
who  is  greater,  than  themselves. — And  an  oath,  &c.,  should  pro- 
bably be,  "  And  of  all  their  dispute  the  oath  is  an  end  for  con- 
firmation" (i.e.  it  finally  settles  the  matter).] 

17.  Wherein  should  be  "Wherefore." — Tlie  heirs  of  promise: 
"  the  heirs  of  the  promise." — Confirmed  it  should  be  "  mediated." 

19,  20.  That  ivithin  the  veil  which  the  firm  anchor  of  faith 
enters  into  is  the  Holy  of  Holies  (Exod.  xxvi.  33 ;  Lev.  xvi.  2, 
12,  15)  of  heaven,  whither  Jesus  has  gone  before,  having  been 
made  an  eternal  liigh-priest  after  the  order  of  Melchisedec. 

vii.  The  high-priesthood  of  Christ  after  tlie  order  of  Melchisedec. 

This  high-priesthood  of  Christ  is  worked  out  altogether  after 


vii.  2—19]  HEBREWS.  137 

the  fashion  of  Philonic  exposition  of  Scripture,  in  order  to  demon- 
strate the  imperfection  of  the  Levitical  priesthood. 

vii.  2. 

Melchisedec,  king  of  Salem,  the  priest  of  the  most  high  God, 
to  whom  Abraham  gave  a  tithe  of  the  booty  he  had  taken  in 
war  (see  Gen.  xiv.  18 — 20),  as  being  called  Melchisedec,  is  (in 
Hebrew)  king  of  righteousness ;  and  as  king  of  Salem  he  is  (also 
in  Hebrew)  a  king  of  peace. 

vii.  3. 

"Without  father,  without  mother,  without  descent,  without 
beginning  or  end  of  life,  he  stands  before  us,  not  in  reality,  but 
still  in  the  Scripture,  which  is  intentionally  silent  on  all  these 
points,  and  he  is  thus  an  image  of  the  Son  of  God,  a  priest  for 
ever  (comp.  ver.  8). 

vii.  4—10. 

This  Melchisedec  is  superior  to  Abraham,  who  paid  him  the 
tithe  and  received  from  him  the  blessing.  Nay,  in  Abraham  he 
even  received  tithe  from  Levi,  Abraham's  descendant. 

vii.  11—19. 

The  fact  that,  in  Ps.  ex.  4,  another  high-priest  of  the  order  of 
Melchisedec  is  announced,  proves  that  the  completion  has  not 
been  attained  through  the  Levitical  priesthood  of  the  order  of 
Aaron.  With  the  change  of  priesthood,  a  change  of  the  Law  is 
also  announced.  Christ,  of  whom  this  has  been  said,  is  of  the 
non-priestly  tribe  of  Judah,  and  is  therefore  a  priest,  not  according 
to  the  law  of  carnal  commandment,  but  according  to  the  power 
of  an  indissoluble  life.  Hereby  the  old  Law,  which  was  too 
weak  and  unprofitable,  has  been  abolished  and  a  better  hope 
brought  in. 

11.  Eead,  "  Now  if  the  completion  were  by  the  Levitical  priest- 
hood ....  what  need  would  there  still  be  to  say  that  a  different 
priest  should  arise  after  the  order  of  Melchisedec  and  not  after 
the  order  of  Aaron  ?" 

[14.  Evident  =  well  known.] 

15.  For  that:  "if." 

16.  Endless  should  be  "indissoluble." 

[18,  19.  Many  commentators  translate :  "  For  there  is  indeed 
a  disannulling  of  a  foregoing  commandment  because  of  its  weak- 
ness and  unprofitableness  (for  the  Law  made  nothing  perfect) ; 


138  HEBREWS.  [vii.  19— viii.  4 

but  there  is  a  bringing  in  of  a  better  hope,  by  which  we  draw 
nigh  unto  God."    This  is  the  sense  of  Luther's  version  also.] 

vii.  20—22. 

The  new  priesthood  was  introduced  by  a  divine  oath  (Ps. 
ex.  4),  which  is  wanting  in  the  case  of  the  priesthood  of  the  Law, 
so  that  Jesus  appears  as  the  surety  of  a  much  better  divine 
testament  (covenant). 

vii.  23—25. 

The  priests  of  the  old  Law  are  many,  because  they  are  mortal ; 
this  one  new  priest  is  the  first  to  have  an  imperishable  priest- 
hood, because  he  remains  for  ever ;  wherefore  he  can  completely 
save  those  who  approach  God  through  him. 

25.  To  the  %ttermost :  i.  e.  "  altogether." 

vii.  26—28. 
In  Jesus  at  last  we  have  a  holy  high-priest,  exalted  above 
heaven,  who  has  not,  like  the  high-priests  of  the  Law,  to  sacrifice 
first  for  his  own  sins  and  then  for  those  of  the  people,  but  has 
offered  himself  once  for  all,  himself  not  a  weak  man  like  the 
others,  but  made  perfect  for  ever. 

27.  It  is  an  error  on  the  part  of  the  writer  to  suppose  that  the 
high-priests  of  the  Law  had  to  ofier  sacrifice  daily.  They  were 
only  obliged  to  do  so  once  a  year  on  the  day  of  atonement. 

28.  Which:  i. e.  "  the  oath." — Consecrated:  "perfect." 

viii.  The  high-priest  in  heaven. 

Special  stress  is  laid  upon  the  fact  that  the  Christian  high- 
priest  sits  at  the  right  hand  of  God  in  heaven.  Thus  Christ  is 
the  priest  of  the  heavenly  sanctuary.  The  priests  after  the  Law 
in  the  earthly  sanctuary  (the  building  of  wliich  is  described 
according  to  the  pattern  which  was  shown  to  Moses  upon  the 
Mount,  Exod.  xxv.  40)  serve  only  an  image  and  shadow  of  hea- 
venly things.  Christ  has  attained  a  higher  priesthood,  as  the 
mediator  of  a  better  covenant  (testament),  which  was  also 
ordained  under  better  promises  (viii.  6).  The  imperfection  of 
the  first  covenant  (testament)  and  the  promise  of  a  new  cove- 
nant, a  law  written  in  the  hearts,  is  plainly  to  be  read  in  Jer. 
xxxi.  31—34. 

4.  Eead,  "  Now  if  he  were  on  earth  he  would  not  be  even  a 
priest." 


viii.  5 — ix.  11]  HEBREWS.  139 

5.  Eead,  "  Who  serve  the  image  and  shadow  of  heavenly- 
things." 

6.  Eead,  "But  now  he  has  obtained  an  office  which  is  the 
more  excellent  in  proportion  as  he  is  the  mediator  of  a  better 
testament,  which  has  been  given  indeed  under  better  promises." 

ix.  1 — 10.  The  great  inferiority  of  the  service  of  the  earthly 
sanctuary  in  the  first  covenant. 

The  description  of  the  tabernacle  is  after  Exod.  xxv. — xxx. 
There  was  first  the  fore-tabernacle,  the  holy  place  [A.V.  sanc- 
tuary], then  behind  the  second  veil  the  tabernacle,  which  is  called 
the  Holy  of  Holies.  In  the  latter  our  author  (ver.  4)  erroneously 
places  the  golden  altar  of  incense  which  stood  in  the  holy  place 
(Exod.  xxx.  1 — 6,  comp.  xl.  26;  Levit.  xvi.  18).  Similarly  he  erro- 
neously places  the  golden  pot  of  manna  [Exod.  xvi.  33  sq.]  and 
Aaron's  rod  [Num.  xvii.  10]  in  the  ark  of  the  covenant,  which 
(according  to  1  Kings  viii.  9 ;  2  Chron.  v.  10)  contained  only  the 
tables  of  the  Law.  That  the  high-priest  might  only  enter  the 
Holy  of  Holies  once  in  the  year  on  the  day  of  atonement  to 
sacrifice  for  his  own  and  the  people's  transgressions,  is  inter- 
preted (vv.  8 — 10)  to  mean  that  the  way  to  the  holy  had  not 
yet  been  found  so  long  as  the  first  tabernacle  (the  fore-taber- 
nacle) stood  ;  that  this  is  a  figure  referring  to  the  present  time, 
in  which  those  who  serve  God  cannot  make  their  sacrifices 
perfect  according  to  conscience,  since  they  are  nothing  but  carnal 
ordinances  (ver.  10,  comp.  vii.  16)  concerning  meats  and  drinks 
and  washings,  which  are  imposed  not  for  ever,  but  only  until 
the  time  of  reformation. 

[3.  Holiest  of  all:  lit.  Holy  of  Holies,  a  Hebraism  for  "holiest."] 

4.  Censer  should  be  "  altar  of  incense." 

8,  9.  Eead,  "  The  Holy  Spirit  signifying  that  the  way  to  the 
holy  had  not  yet  been  revealed  so  long  as  the  fore-tabernacle  stood, 
which  is  a  figure  for  the  present  time  in  which  are  offered,"  &c. 

ix.  11 — 28.  The  superiority  of  Christ's  priesthood. 

Christ,  as  high-priest  of  the  good  things  to  come,  has  passed 
once  for  all  through  the  perfect  tabernacle  not  made  with  hands, 
i.e.  through  heaven  (comp.  iv.  14),  and  not  with  blood  of  goats 
and  calves,  but  with  his  own  blood,  into  the  sanctuary,  and  has 
found  an  eternal  redemption. 


140  HEBREWS.  [ix.  11 — X.  4 

ix.  11—14. 
If  in  the  worldly  sanctuary  the  blood  of  beasts  (Num.  xix.  1  sqq.) 
sanctified  unto  the  purification  of  the  flesh,  so  much  the  more 
will  the  blood  of  Christ  cleanse  the  consciences  from  dead  works 
(of  the  Law)  to  serve  the  living  God.  The  sacrifice  of  Christ,  as 
distinguished  from  the  temporary  external  sacrifices  of  the  old 
covenant,  was  a  moral  act  of  sacrifice  of  obedience,  and  being 
offered  by  virtue  of  eternal  spirit,  it  has  also  an  inner  and  eternal 
validity. 

11.  By:  "through." — ^m'Mm^  should  be  " creation." 

12.  Having  obtained  should  be  "  and  obtained." 

14.  Your:  "our."  [The  authority  of  the  MSS.  is  pretty 
equally  divided.] 

ix.  15—28. 

Christ,  then,  is  the  mediator  of  a  new  covenant  (testament) 
(comp.  Matt.  xxvi.  28),  which  has  been  founded  through  his 
blood,  just  as  the  first  covenant  was  established  not  without 
blood,  and  as  according  to  the  Law  almost  everything  was  puri- 
fied with  blood  (see  Exod.  xxiv.  3  sqq.,  and  also  the  same  idea 
in  Num.  xix.  1 — 6,  and  in  the  sprinkling  of  the  hook  of  the 
covenant  and  the  tabernacle  and  the  vessels  belonging  to  it  with 
blood).  With  such  blood  the  types  of  heavenly  things  (in  the 
Law)  had  to  be  purified.  But  the  heavenly  things  themselves 
required  better  sacrifices.  Christ  entered  not  into  the  sanctuary 
made  with  hands,  but  into  heaven  itself,  in  order  to  appear  for 
US  before  God.  He  did  not  offer  a  sacrifice  repeatedly,  like  the 
high-priests  of  the  Law,  but  he  offered  himself  once  for  all,  that 
he  might  then  appear  unto  them  that  awaited  him,  for  their  sal- 
vation (comp.  Col.  ii.  6 — 17). 

2L  Blood  should  be  "the  blood." 

22.  Purged:  "purified"  [same  word  as  in  ver.  23]. 

24.  Holy  places:  "holy  place." — Are  the  figures:  "is  an  antitype." 

X.  1 — 18.  Conclusion  of  the  exposition  of  the  high-priesthood  of 

Christ. 

X.  1—4. 

The  Law  has  only  a  shadow  (comp.  Col.  ii.  17)  of  the  good 

things  to  come.      Its  sacrifices  must  be  continually  repeated, 

because  they  bring  sins  to  remembrance  indeed,  but  are  unable 

to  wipe  out  the  consciousness  of  sin. 


X.  5—26]  HEBREWS.  '  141 

X.  5—10. 

From  Ps.  xl.  6 — 8  (following  the  erroneous  Greek  version,  "  a 
body"  for  "my  ears")  it  is. concluded  that  Christ,  at  his  entrance 
into  the  world,  which  was  foretold  in  the  book  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, was  to  do  away  with  the  whole  legal  system  of  sacrifice. 

8.  Eead,  "  He  saith  before,"  &c. 

X.  11—18. 

While  the  priests  of  the  Law  with  their  continual  sacrifices 
cannot  wipe  out  sins,  Christ  with  the  one  sacrifice  of  his  body 
has  at  once  completed  everything,  and  now  sits  at  the  right  hand 
of  God,  after  he  has  founded  the  new  covenant  of  laws  given  in 
the  hearts,  and  accomplished  the  forgiveness  of  sins. 

12.  Read,  "  But  this  man,  after  he  had  offered  one  sacrifice  for 
sins,  sat  down  for  ever  on  the  right  hand  of  God." 

[13.  Expecting:  i. e.  "  waiting."] 

15,  17.  "  For  after  that  he  had  said  before.  This  is  the  cove- 
nant, &c the  Lord  saith,  I  will  put  my  laws,"  &c. 

X.  19 — 39.  Exiiortation  to  steadfastness. 

Practical  exhortation,  with  confidence  in  the  entrance  opened 
through  the  blood  of  Jesus  and  in  the  possession  of  the  great 
high-priest  over  the  house  of  God,  inflexibly  to  hold  fast  to  the 
confession  of  the  hope. 

X.  19—22. 

19.  Holiest:  "holy  place"  [same  word  as  in  ix.  2,  12,  24]. 

20.  Eead,  "Which  (entrance)  he  hath  consecrated  unto  us  as 
a  new  and  living  way  through  the  veil,  that  is  to  say,  through 
his  flesh,"  &c. 

X.  23—25. 

23.  Faith:  "hope"  [so  all  MSS.] 

24.  The  Hebrews  should  provoke  one  another,  not  to  works 
of  the  Law,  but  to  love  and  good  works. 

25.  Exhortation  not  to  forsake  the  gathering  together  of  the 
Christian  community,  as  some  of  them  were  already  beginning 
to  do,  since  the  day  of  the  return  of  Christ  is  approaching  (comp. 
ver.  37). 

X.  26—31. 
The  terrible  punishment  for  deliberate  apostasy,  for  which 
there  is  no  atonement.     The  penalty  for  the  rejection  of  the 


142  '  HEBREWS.  [x.  26—39 

Mosaic  Law  was  death  (Deut.  xvii.  2 — 7).  Much  greater  will 
be  the  punishment  of  him  who  has  trodden  under  foot  the  Son 
of  God,  counted  the  blood  of  the  covenant  (testament),  wherewith 
he  was  sanctified,  common  (profane),  and  treated  despitefuUy  the 
Christian  spirit,  a  spirit  of  grace  in  opposition  to  the  religion  of 
the  Law. 

[28.  Eead,  "  He  that  hath  trangressed  the  Law  of  Moses  dieth 
without  mercy  on  the  evidence  of  two  or  three  witnesses."] 

30.  Eead,  "  Vengeance  is  mine ;  I  will  repay,  saith  the  Lord." 
From  Deut.  xxxii.  35,  with  the  same  departure  from  the  original 
and  the  Greek  version  as  in  Eom.  xii.  19.  [Some  MSS.  omit 
"  saith  the  Lord,"  which  may  have  been  added  here  from  Eom.] 

X.  32—34. 

The  Hebrews,  already  wavering  in  their  Christian  confession, 
are  reminded  of  the  first  period  of  their  enlightenment  or  con- 
version to  Christianity.  At  that  time  they  endured  a  great  fight 
of  sufferings,  partly  by  being  themselves  made  a  gazing-stock 
with  reproaches  and  afilictions,  partly  by  having  become  com- 
panions of  those  who  so  lived,  viz.  the  oppressed  Christian 
brethren  in  the  faith.  For  they  suffered  with  those  who  were 
in  bonds  (not  with  "  me  in  my  bonds,"  as  some  early  MSS.  have 
it),  and  bore  the  spoiling  of  their  goods  joyfully. — All  this  agrees 
with  the  persecution  of  the  Jews  in  Alexandria  under  the  emperor 
Caius  Caligula  (38 — 41),  which  Philo  describes.  This  persecu- 
tion of  the  Alexandrian  Jews  would  no  doubt  also  fall  upon  the 
young  Jewish-Christian  community. 

34.  Eead,  "For  ye  had  compassion  on  those  in  bonds,  and 
took  with  joy  the  spoiling  of  your  possessions,  knowing  that  ye 
have  a  better  and  enduring  possession  for  yourselves  in  heaven." 
[Some  of  the  best  MSS.  omit  "  in  heaven."] 

X.  35—39. 
The  Hebrews  still  require  patience,  in  order  that  they  may 
receive  the  promise  through  the  fulfilment  of  the  Divine  will. 

37.  The  return  of  Christ  is  to  be  expected  to  come  soon. 

38.  From  Hab.  ii.  3,  4  (here  quoted  more  fully  than  in  Eom. 
i.  17),  let  them  learn  that  cowardly  retreat  leads  to  destruction, 
but  faith  leads  to  the  deliverance  of  the  soul. — The  just  should 
be  "my  just  man." 


xi.  1 — 12]  HEBREWS.  143 

xi.  Tlie  writer's  oion  peculiar  conception  of  the  fundamental 

principle  of  Paulinism. 
The  writer  desires  not  only  to  keep  the  Hebrews  to  the  Chris- 
tian faith  generally,  but  also  to  win  them  to  a  Christianity  free 
from  the  Law. 

xi.  1—3. 
Faith  is  not  here,  as  with  Paul,  confined  to  the  acknowledg- 
ment of  Jesus  as  the  promised  Son  of  God,  but,  from  the  first,  is 
"Understood  more  generally  as  confidence  in  that  which  is  hoped 
for,  an  unhesitating  assurance  of  the  invisible. 

1.  Eead,  "  But  faith  is  an  undoubting  conviction  of  things 
hoped  for,  a  conviction  of  things  not  seen." 

2.  The  ciders :  "  the  ancients." 

3.  From  the  definition  of  faith  in  ver.  1,  it  follows  that  the 
subject  of  faith  is  God,  His  creation  of  the  world,  and  the  recom- 
pense which  He  gives  (ver.  6). — The  things  vjhich  are  seen  were 
not  should  be  "  that  which  is  visible  was  not." 

xi.  4—7. 

The  series  of  witnesses  to  the  faith  does  not  begin,  as  in 
Paul  (Eom.  iv.  11),  with  Abraham,  the  ancestor  of  righteousness 
by  faith,  but  as  far  back  as  Abel,  who  after  his  death  still 
speaketh  (comp.  xii.  24;  Gen.  iv.  10),  Enoch,  Noah,  who  were  all 
heirs  of  the  righteousness  which  is  of  faith. 

7.  [Fear :  rather,  "  piety." — By  the  which  refers  to  his  faith.] 
WJiich  is  by  faith  should  be  "  according  to  faith." 

xi.  8—10. 
Abraham's  saving  faith  is  no  longer  confined,  as  Paul  has  it, 
simply  to  the  promise  given  to  him  and  his  seed,  but  is  extended 
to  a  heavenly  Jerusalem  (comp.  Gal.  iv.  26),  and  the  firmly- 
founded  city  of  the  supernatural  world  (comp.  Heb.  xi.  14,  16). 

xi.  11,  12. 

That  which  Paul  describes  as  the  justifying  faith  of  Abraham 
(Eom.  iv.  18  sqq.),  is  here  transferred  to  Sarah,  viz.  faith  in  the 
promise  in  spite  of  its  inconsistency  with  what  might  naturally 
be  expected. 

11.  Eead,  "  By  faith,  Sarah  herself  received  strength  to  found 
a  seed  [i.e.  a  family],  even  contrary  to  her  time  of  life"  (Ht.  "the 
time  of  her  age"). 


144  HEBREWS.  [xi.  13—33 

xi.  13—16. 

General  remarks  upon  the  faith  of  the  patriarchs,  who  felt 
that  they  were  strangers  upon  earth  and  sought  a  heavenly 
fatherland. 

13.  Eead,  "These  all  died  in  faith,  not  having  received  the 
promises,  but  having  seen  them  afar  off,  and  greeted  them,  and 
confessed  that  they  were  strangers  and  aliens  on  the  earth." 

xi.  17—19. 

The  sacrifice  of  Isaac  (Gen  xxii.  1  sqq.)  is  adduced  as  a  special 
proof  of  Abraham's  faith,  which  is  shown  by  his  confidence  in 
God's  power  to  raise  from  the  dead ;  wherefore,  figuratively 
speaking,  Abraham  received  his  only  son  back  again.  As  the 
fore  part  of  the  tabernacle  is  a  figure  of  the  present  age  (ix.  9), 
so  this  receiving  of  Isaac,  who  was  offered  as  a  sacrifice,  is  a 
figure  of  the  resurrection  of  the  Eedeemer  from  his  sacrificial 
death. 

xi.  20—22. 

21.  And  worshipped,  &c.,  should  be  "  and  worshipped  towards 
the  top  of  his  staff." — The  writer  here  follows  the  incorrect  Greek 
version  of  Gen,  xlvii.  31,  which  speaks  of  the  staff  instead  of  the 
bed. 

xi.  23—29. 

23.  See  Exod.  i.  22,  ii.  1,  2.— Proper :  "fair"  [the  same  word 
that  is  rendered  "fair"  in  Acts  vii.  20]. 

26.  A  far-reaching  extension  of  the  idea  of  prefigurations  of 
Christianity  in  the  Old  Testament.  Moses,  in  surrendering  the 
treasures  of  Egypt  with  a  view  to  a  heavenly  recompense,  is  said 
already  to  have  borne  (typically)  the  reproach  of  Christ. — [Had 
respect  unto :  i.  e.  "  looked  to."] 

27.  His  faith  is  said  to  have  prevented  him  from  fearing  the 
wrath  of  the  king  when  he  left  Egypt  (Exod  ii.  15). — Endured 
should  be  "was  strong"  or  "steadfast." 

xi.  31. 
The  writer  boldly  ventures  to  reckon  even  the  harlot  Eahab  as 
a  heroine  of  faith  because  of  her  friendly  reception  of  the  spies. 

xi.  33—38. 
33.  Stopped  the  raouths  of  lions :  see  Judges  xiv.  16;  1  Sam. 
xvii.  34  sqq. ;  Dan.  vi.  22 ;  1  Mace.  ii.  60 ;  [Ecclus.  xlvii.  3]. 


xi.  35— xii.  11]  HEBREWS.  145 

35.  Women  reecived  their  dead  raised  to  life  again  (lit.  "by 
resurrection"):  see  1  Kings  xvii.  17  sqq. ;  2  Kings  iv.  18  sqq. — 
"  But  others  were  tortured  :"  see  2  Mace.  vi.  18  sqq.,  vii.  1  sqq. 
Those  who  were  tortured  despised  outward  deliverance,  that 
they  might  obtain  a  better  resurrection. 

37,  38.  They  vjere  stoned :  see  2  Chron.  xxiv.  20 — 22. — Savj7i 
asunder:  According  to  an  ancient  tradition,  which  is  probably 
referred  to  here,  the  prophet  Isaiah  is  said  to  have  been  sawn 
asunder  by  command  of  the  Jewish  king  Manasseh. — Slain  with 
the  sword:  see  1  Kings  xix.  10, 14;  [Jer.  ii.  30,  xxvi.  23];  Zech. 
xiii.  7. — [Tempted :  This  appears  strange  in  the  middle  of  a  list 
of  violent  deaths.  "Burnt"  or  "pierced"  has  been  suggested, 
either  of  which  words  in  Greek  would  differ  very  slightly  from 
the  word  which  stands  in  the  text  meaning  "tempted."] — They 
wandered  about,  &c. :  see  1  Kings  xviii.  4,  13,  xix.  4,  8  sqq. ; 
1  Mace.  ii.  28,  29 ;  2  Mace.  v.  27,  vi.  11,  x.  1. 

xi.  39,  40. 
The  fulfilment  of  the  promise,  which  the  earlier  age  did  not 
see,  has  been  reserved  for  the  Christians. 

xii.  Continuation  of  the  exhortation  to  righteousness  hy  faith,  which 
has  been  interrupted  by  the  cloud  of  ivitnesses  in  the  preceding 
chapter. 

xii.  1—3. 
Laying  aside  every  impediment,  they  are  to  prepare  them- 
selves for  the  race  that  is  set  before  them  (comp.  1  Cor.  ix.  24), 
and  at  the  same  time  to  look  to  the  beginner  and  completer  of 
their  faith,  Jesus,  who  by  his  death  upon  the  cross  has  attained 
to  the  right  hand  of  God.  Let  them  consider  what  contradiction 
he  had  to  endure  from  sinners,  as  the  Jews  are  here  called  (comp. 
Heb.  vii.  26),  not  the  Gentiles  (Wisd.  x.  20 ;  Matt.  ix.  10,  xi.  19, 
xxvi.  45,  comp.  Luke  xviii.  32 ;  Gal.  ii.  15),  in  order  that  their 
courage  may  not  fail. 

1.  "  Wherefore  let  us  also,  seeing  that  we  are  compassed  about 
with  so  great  a  cloud  of  witnesses,  lay  aside,"  &c. 

2.  Author:  "beginner."  [The  same  word  that  is  translated 
"captain"  in  ii.  10,  and  "prince"  in  Acts  iii.  15,  v.  31.] 

xii.  4—11. 
The  Hebrews,  in  resisting  sin  (on  the  part  of  the  Jews),  have 
VOL.  III.  L 


146  HEBREWS.  [xii.  11—19 

not  yet  come  to  the  shedding  of  blood,  i.e.  they  have  not  yet 
suffered  any  bloody  persecution.  And  yet  in  the  struggle  they 
have  already  forgotten  the  scriptural  saying  (Prov,  iii.  11  sq.), 
that  whom  the  Lord  loveth  he  chasteneth.  Only  bastards,  and 
not  children,  are  without  chastisement.  To  the  Father  of  spirits, 
as  God  is  called  in  ver.  9  (comp.  Num.  xvi.  22,  xxvii.  16),  let 
them  submit  even  in  chastisement,  for  this  finally  produces  the 
peaceful  fruit  of  righteousness,  i.e.  the  fruit  of  peace  which  con- 
sists in  righteousness. 

xii.  12—17. 

Let  us,  then,  in  the  contest  lift  up  the  hands  that  hang  down 
and  the  feeble  knees,  and  take  care  not  to  stumble.  Especially 
the  Hebrews  are  admonished  to  let  no  root  of  bitterness  spring 
up  among  them  (after  a  corrupt  reading  of  the  Greek  version  of 
Deut.  xxix.  18)  whereby  the  multitude  would  be  defiled.  What 
is  probably  meant  is  apostasy  from  Christianity  to  Judaism,  as 
is  shown  by  the  warning  that  follows,  that  no  one,  like  Esau,  sell 
his  (Christian)  birthright  for  meat.  After  this  no  repentance 
was  possible  to  Esau  (comp.  Gen.  xxvii.  34  sqq.),  just  as  the 
author  of  our  Epistle  has  already  said  there  is  no  repentance  for 
apostasy  from  Christianity  (vi.  4 — 6). 

14.  Holiness:  "sanctification"  [so  lit.]. 

xii.  18 — 29.   Warning  against  apostasy. 

Erom  these  verses  it  is  evident  that  the  writer  is  concerned 
with  the  question  of  apostasy  from  Christianity  to  Judaism. 

xii.  18—21. 

They  have  not  come,  as  when  the  Law  was  given  on  Sinai,  to 
a  tangible  mountain  which  burnt  with  fire  (see  Exod.  xix.  18  ; 
Deut  iv.  11,  V.  23,  ix.  15),  to  gloom  and  darkness  and  tempest 
(see  Deut.  iv.  11,  v.  22),  to  the  sound  of  a  trumpet  (see  Exod. 
xix.  16,  19,  XX.  18)  and  a  voice  of  words  (i.e.  the  words  of  God 
in  the  giving  of  the  Ten  Commandments,  Exod.  xx. ;  Deut.  v.), 
the  hearers  of  which  prayed  that  no  more  might  be  spoken  to 
them  (see  Exod.  xx.  18,  19;  Deut.  v,  25,  xviii.  16).  For  they 
did  not  bear  the  commandment  (Exod.  xix.  12,  13)  that  even  a 
beast  which  touched  the  mountain  must  be  stoned.  Moses  him- 
self spoke  with  fear  of  the  terrible  sight  (see  Deut.  ix.  19). 

19.  Eead,  "  And  to  the  sound  of  a  trumpet,  and  to  a  voice  of 


xii.  19 — xiii.  3]  HEBREWS.  147 

words,  the  hearers  of  which  begged  that  no  more  might  be  said 
unto  them." 

[20.  Gould  not  endure :  lit.  "  did  not  bear."] 

xii.  22—24. 
They  have  come,  rather,  to  Mount  Sion  (frequently  spoken 
of  in  the  Old  Testament  as  the  dwelling-place  of  God  and 
the  place  of  future  salvation ;  see  Ps.  xlviii.  3,  1.  2 ;  Is.  ii.  2,  3 ; 
Mic.  iv.  1,  2,  &c.),  to  the  city  of  the  living  God,  the  heavenly 
Jerusalem  (comp.  Gal.  iv.  26),  to  many  thousands  of  augels  (the 
retinue  of  God),  to  the  community  of  the  first-born,  gathered 
together  to  the  festival,  who  are  written  in  heaven,  i.e.  to  those 
righteous  ones  who  were  enumerated  in  ch.  xi.  who  are  not  yet 
in  heaven,  but  whose  names  are  written  there  (comp.  Luke  x.  20  ; 
Phil.  iv.  3).  They  have  come  to  God  himself,  the  Judge  of  all, 
to  the  spirits  of  perfected  just  men  (i.e.,  probably,  the  Chris- 
tians who  had  already  fallen  asleep),  to  the  mediator  of  the  new 
covenant,  Jesus,  and  to  the  blood  of  sprinkling  that  speaketh 
better  than  that  of  Abel  (comp.  xi.  4). 

22.  An  innumerable  company :  lit.  "  tens  of  thousands." 

23.  General  should  be  "  festival." 

xii.  25—29. 
They  must  therefore  see  that  they  do  not  reject  him  that 
speaketh  from  heaven,  whose  voice  shook  the  earth  (see  Exod. 
xix.  18 ;  Judges  v.  4  sq. ;  Ps.  Ixviii.  8,  cxiv.  7),  who  hath  pro- 
mised to  shake  once  more  heaven  and  earth  (Hagg.  ii.  6).  This 
"  once  more"  the  writer  takes  to  signify  an  impending  change  of 
the  whole  creation,  in  order  that  that  which  is  unshaken  may 
remain.  With  the  prospect  of  a  kingdom  that  cannot  be  shaken, 
they  must  therefore  serve  God  in  thankfulness,  but  at  the  same 
time  with  fear  before  him  as  a  consuming  fire  (Deut.  iv.  24). 

27.  Removing:  "changing." 

28.  Let  us  have  graee  should  be  "  let  us  cherish  gratitude." 

xiii,   Sjpeeial  exJwrtations  added  to  the  great  exhortation  to  stand 
fast  in  the  Ghristiaii  confession. 

xiii.  1—3. 
Exhortation  to  brotherly  love,  to  hospitality,  whereby  some 
(e.g.  Abraham  and  Lot,  Gen.  xviii.  xix)  have  entertained  angels, 
and  to  sympathy  with  prisoners  and  those  who  are  in  adversity. 

l2 


148  HEBREWS.  [xiii.  4—16 

xiii.  4. 
Marriage  must  be  kept  thoroughly  in  honour. — Eead,  "Let 
marriage  be  held  in  honour  among  all,"  &c. 

xiii.  5,  6. 

5.  The  writer  quotes  Deut.  xxxi.  6  (comp.  1  Chron.  xxviii.  20 ; 
Josh.  i.  5)  with  the  same  variation  with  which  the  Alexandrian 
Jew,  Philo,  quotes  it  in  one  of  his  writings. — \Conversation:  i.e. 
"  conduct." — Never :  better,  "  in  no  wise."] 

6.  The  Lord,  &c. :  "  The  Lord  is  my  helper,  and  I  will  not 
fear.  What  shall  man  do  unto  me  ?"  [So  the  best  editors  divide 
the  verse.] 

xiii.  7. 
Exhortation  to  remember  the  teachers  who  have  died,  whose 
faith  should  be  imitated. — Them  that  have  rule  over  you  :  "your 
teachers"  [lit.  "your  leaders"]. — [Conversation:  i.e.  manner  of  life.] 

xiii.  8,  9. 
8.  [This  verse  should  not  be  connected  with  "  end"  in  the  pre- 
ceding verse,  but  is  a  separate  sentence :  "  Jesus  Christ  is  the 
same  yesterday,  to-day  and  for  ever."] — To  this  mention  of  Jesus 
Christ  as  the  same  yesterday  and  to-day  and  for  ever,  the  writer 
attaches  a  warning  against  diverse  doctrines  alien  to  Christianity, 
dealing  with  the  unprofitable  externality  of  meats  and  with  sacri- 
fices, that  is  to  say,  a  warning  against  doctrines  of  Judaism. 

xiii.  10—12. 
The  readers  are  assured  that  they  have  an  altar  of  which  those 
who  serve  the  tabernacle  may  not  eat.  For,  as  the  beasts  sacri- 
ficed by  the  high-priest  (on  tlie  day  of  atonement)  were  burned 
without  the  camp  (Lev.  xvi.  27),  so  Jesus,  in  order  that  he  might 
by  his  own  blood  sanctify  the  people  (of  them  that  believe),  suf- 
fered without  the  gate  (Matt,  xxvii.  32). 

xiii.  13 — 16. 
Therefore  the  Christian  Hebrews  are  required  to  go  forth  to 
him  without  the  Jewish  camp,  bearing  his  reproach,  i.e.  to  break 
off  entirely  from  the  Jewish  religious  communion.  We  have 
here  (upon  earth)  no  abiding  city  (the  earthly  Jerusalem,  the 
existence  of  which  is  still  evidently  assumed),  but  seek  one  which 
is  to  come  (comp.  xi.  10,  13  sqq.).  Therefore  let  the  sacrifice  of 
praise  be  offered  to  God  at  all  times  through  Christ — not  from 


xiii.  13—24]  HEBREWS.  149 

time  to  time  through  the  Levitical  priests — sacrifices  of  praise 
and  of  beneficence. 

[15.  Giving  thanks :  i.e.  our  lips  which  give  thanks.] 

[16.  Communicate:  i.e.  "share."] 

xiii.  17. 
17.  Further  exhortation  to  obey  the  teachers  or  rulers  [A.V. 
"them  that  have  the  rule  over  you;"  lit.  "your  leaders"],  who 
were  probably  not  of  Hebrew  blood. 

xiii.  18,  19. 

Intercession  for  the  writer  himself,  especially  that  he  may 
come  very  soon  to  the  readers  again. 

[18.  Willing  to  live  honestly :  better,  "  desiring  to  live  honour- 
ably," or  "  in  a  seemly  manner."] 

19.  The  rather :  "  more  abundantly." 

xiii.  20,  21. 
The  writer,  in  conclusion,  wishes  his  Hebrew  readers  all  prac- 
tical help  from  the  God  of  peace,  who  hath  raised  the  great 
Shepherd  of  the  sheep  from  the  dead  (comp.  1  Thess.  v.  23). 

20.  This  reference  to  the  resurrection  of  Christ  is  the  only 
one  in  the  Epistle. 

xiii.  22. 
May  the  readers  hear  the  hortatory  address. 

xiii.  23. 
Timothy  has  been  set  free  from  his  bonds  again,  i.  e.  from  the 
imprisonment  into  which  he  seems  to  have  been  brought  as  tra- 
velling companion  to  Paul  (comp.  Phil.  i.  1,  ii.  19).     The  writer 
hopes,  with  him,  to  see  the  readers,  if  he  shall  come  soon, 

xiii.  24,  25. 

The  greeting  which  is  sent  to  all  the  rulers  or  teachers  of  the 
Hebrews  and  to  all  the  saints,  i.e.  the  remaining  members  of  the 
community,  shows  us  that  these  Hebrews  only  formed  a  part  of  a 
larger  Christian  community.  But  the  greeting  which  the  writer 
sends  from  the  brethren  from  Italy,  places  us  in  the  time  imme- 
diately following  the  ISTeronian  persecution  of  the  Christians, 
which  must  have  driven  many  Christians  out  of  Italy. — The 
greetings  of  these  confessors  of  Christianity  had  special  weight. 

[24.  Them  that  have  the  rule  over  you:  see  note  on  ver.  17. — 
They  of  Italy:  strictly,  "  they  out  of  Italy."] 


THE   EPISTLE    OF  JAMES. 


A  CONSIDERABLE  period  elapsed  before  the  Epistle  whicli  we 
now  possess  under  the  name  of  James  met  with  distinct  accept- 
ance in  the  collection  of  New-Testament  writings.  It  was  known, 
indeed,  in  the  Eastern  Church  as  early  as  the  middle  of  the  second 
century.  Though  there  was  an  inclination  there  to  acknowledge 
it  as  a  work  of  apostolic  origin  and  to  incorporate  it  in  the  New 
Testament,  still  there  were  serious  objections  to  it,  which  were 
probably  the  cause  of  the  delay  in  its  general  acceptance.  It  was 
not  until  the  beginning  of  the  second  half  of  the  fourth  century 
that  the  Eastern  Church  decided  formally  in  favour  of  its  accept- 
ance among  the  New-Testament  writings.  In  the  Western  Church, 
where  for  a  long  time  it  had  been  but  little  regarded,  it  was  not 
until  the  end  of  the  same  century  that  a  secure  place  was  assigned 
to  it  among  the  other  Epistles  of  the  New  Testament. 

Erom  this  time  the  doubts  which  this  Epistle  had  given  rise 
to  in  the  Christian  church  were  laid  to  rest  until  they  awoke 
again  in  the  age  of  the  Eeformation.  Luther's  strong  objection 
to  it  is  well  known.  In  the  year  1522,  in  his  Introduction  to  it, 
he  denies  its  apostolic  origin,  saying :  "  Methinks  it  must  have 
been  some  good  pious  man  that  took  some  sayings  of  the  dis- 
ciples of  the  apostles  and  put  them  down  on  paper,  or  perhaps 
it  was  written  by  another  from  his  preaching."  In  his  Introduc- 
tion to  the  New  Testament,  written  in  the  same  year,  he  speaks 
of  it  in  the  well-known  contemptuous  terms  that  have  already 
been  quoted  in  our  General  Introduction  (Vol.  I.  p.  23).  To  this 
severe  sentence  upon  the  Epistle  of  James,  Luther  always  adhered, 


THE  EPISTLE  OF  JAMES.  151 

and  it  is  evident  from  his  later  declarations  that  the  ground 
of  his  special  objection  to  the  Epistle  was  the  impossibility  of 
reconciling  its  doctrine  of  faith  and  justification  with  the  Pauline 
doctrine. 

In  accordance  with  the  spirit  that  afterwards  penetrated  the 
Protestant  Church  in  Germany,  the  unfavourable  opinion  of  the 
Epistle  which  Luther  expressed  was  gradually  abandoned ;  but, 
on  the  other  hand,  in  recent  times  the  revival  of  thorough  and 
independent  scriptural  research  has  given  rise  to  new  objections. 
The  chief  source  of  these  objections  is  the  attack  upon  the 
Pauline  doctrine  of  faith  and  justification  which  is  made  in  the 
second  chapter  (ii.  14 — 26).  There  were  many,  indeed,  who 
thought  they  might  silence  their  doubts  about  this  passage  by 
supposing  that  what  was  attacked  was  not  so  much  the  doctrine 
of  the  apostle  Paul  himself  as  the  misuse  that  was  early  made 
of  it ;  that  fundamentally  Paul  and  James  agreed  entirely  in 
regarding  faith  as  the  necessary  condition  of  justification  and 
reconciliation,  and  works  as  the  natural  fruit  of  faith  and  there- 
fore necessary  to  salvation ;  that  James's  zeal  was  only  directed 
against  those  whose  crass  misunderstanding  of  this  doctrine  had 
allowed  them  to  be  betrayed  into  the  foolish  idea  that  a  dead 
faith,  productive  of  no  results,  was  itself  sufficient  to  justify 
before  God,  whereas  really  justification  and  eternal  salvation 
could  only  be  imparted  by  God  to  him  in  whom  faith  proved 
fruitful  in  good  works. 

This  view,  however,  of  the  attitude  of  the  author  of  our  Epistle 
towards  the  doctrine  of  the  apostle  Paul  was  based  upon  an  error. 
New  and  thorough  investigation  has  shown  that  whoever  wrote  it 
not  only  attacked  the  misunderstanding  and  misuse  of  this  doc- 
trine, but  disapproved  of  the  doctrine  itself,  and  that  altogether 
his  view  of  Christianity  and  its  relation  to  the  Law  of  the  Old 
Testament  was  very  different  from  that  which  was  held  by  the 
great  Apostle  to  the  Gentiles. 

His  position  was,  on  the  whole,  the  Jewish-Christian  position. 
Hence  he  altogether  rejected  Paul's  great  principle  that  by  the 


152  THE  EPISTLE  OF  JAMES. 

foundation  of  a  new  order  of  salvation  which  Christ  had  accom- 
plished, and  especially  by  the  death  which  he  endured,  the  Law, 
which  had  never  been  intended  to  be  more  than  temporary,  had 
been  abolished,  and  that  Christians  therefore,  whether  they  had 
previously  been  Jews  or  Gentiles,  were  no  longer  bound  to  observe 
it.  That  the  abolition  of  the  Law  was  the  condition  on  which 
alone  Christianity  could  be  developed  into  the  universal  religion 
which  it  was  destined  to  become,  was  an  idea  that  he  had  never 
entertained.  To  him,  on  the  contrary,  Christianity  itself  was 
also  Imv,  only  he  saw  in  it  the  cornj^lction  oftkeLaiv  (i.  25),  with- 
out in  any  way  inferring  from  this  that  the  Christians,  including 
even  those  who  were  of  Jewish  origin,  were  free  from  its  domi- 
nion. If  he  also  considered  that  the  highest  moral  principle  of 
Christianity  was  the  commandment  of  love  (ii.  8),  he  explained 
this,  not  on  the  supposition  that  Christianity  was  something 
quite  different  from  the  Law,  but  only  that  it  was  the  Law  itself 
in  its  highest  development.  It  was  to  him  a  law  of  liberty 
(i.  25),  not  because  it  removed  from  its  confessors  the  oppressive 
yoke  of  Jewish  ceremonial  service,  but  rather  because  it  loosened 
for  them  the  fetters  which  had  hitherto  restricted  their  moral 
liberty,  and  placed  them  in  the  happy  state  in  which  they  ful- 
filled of  free  inner  impulse  all  that  the  Law  prescribed.  Like 
Paul,  he  also  ascribed  to  Christianity,  as  the  word  of  truth,  the 
power  of  transforming  man  and  making  him  a  new  man  (i.  18). 
But  the  new  life  thus  produced  in  the  confessors  of  Christianity 
is  expressed,  in  accordance  with  his  views,  not  in  the  faith- 
abounding  spiritual  union  with  Christ,  on  which  Paul  everywhere 
laid  such  stress  (and  which  was  to  him  the  condition  of  the 
attainment  of  all  the  blessings  obtained  by  the  death  of  Christ, 
and,  above  all,  the  condition  of  the  forgiveness  of  sins  and  recon- 
ciliation with  God,  Gal.  ii.  20),  but  in  the  fact  that  the  confessor 
of  Jesus,  in  virtue  of  the  love  that  fills  him,  applies  all  his  pov/ers 
to  the  perfecting  of  loorks  of  beneficence.  It  is  one  of  the  results 
of  this  view  that  the  writer  attaches  throughout  his  Epistle  the 
utmost  importance  to  works,  whereas  Paul,  on  the  other  hand, 


THE  EPISTLE  OF  JAMES.  153 

always  places  the  inner  living  faith  in  Christ  in  the  foreground. 
The  writer's  whole  attitude  towards  Christ  is  altogether  different 
from  that  of  the  apostle  Paul.     The  latter  always  starts  from 
Christ,  and  refers  to  him  all  the  instruction,  the  exhortations  and 
admonitions,  the  threats  and  consolations,  to  which  he  gives 
utterance.     In  the  Epistle  of  James,  Christ  is  strikingly  in  the 
background.    Though  he  is  spoken  of  as  the  Lord  of  glory  (ii.  1), 
yet  he  is  seldom  mentioned ;  and  his  death  on  the  cross  and  his 
resurrection  are  never  mentioned  at  all.     If  we  try  to  picture  to 
ourselves  a  man  of  this  tendency,  and  with  these  views  of  Chris- 
tianity and  its  relation  to  the  Law,  we  shall  easily  understand 
that  he  could  not  look  with  favour  upon  the  Pauline  doctrine 
of  justification,  and  that  he  would  inevitably  be  all  the  more 
prejudiced  against  it  if  he  had  met  with  examples  of  men  who 
erroneously  took  it  to  mean  that  nothing  further  was  required 
for  the  attainment  of  forgiveness  of  sins  and  eternal  salvation 
than  that  one  should  believe  in  Christ  as  the  promised  deliverer, 
and  in  his  death  as  a  vicarious  sacrifice  for  the  reconciliation  of 
men  with  God.    If,  as  his  Epistle  seems  to  indicate,  he  had  read 
some  of  Paul's  Epistles,  those,  at  least,  to  the  Galatians  and  the 
Ptomans,  still  he  had  failed  to  penetrate  into  the  wdiole  truth 
and  depth  of  the  Pauline  doctrine  of  faith  and  justification.     He 
agreed  with  the  apostle  Paul  that  faith  was  a  condition  of  justi- 
fication and  eternal  salvation.     Put  his  conception  of  faith  was 
altogether  different  from  Paul's.   While  Paul  understood  by  faith 
a  complete  spiritual  communion  with  the  Kedeemer  through  the 
deepest  conviction  of  the  divine  honour  of  Jesus  and  his  bloody 
death  of  reconciliation — an  absorption  of  the  entire  spiritual  life 
in  him,  so  that  the  Christian  was  in  Christ  and  Christ  in  him 
(Gal.  ii.  19,  20 ;  2  Cor.  v.  15 ;  Eom.  xiv.  8,  9)— to  the  writer  of 
our  Epistle  faith  was  rather  a  fact  of  the  thinking  mind,  a  con- 
viction of  the  existence  of  the  one  only  God  (ii.  19),  and  of  the 
Messianic  ofl&ce  and  heavenly  glorification  of  Christ  (ii.  1).    Set- 
ting out  from  this  conception  of  faith,  it  was  impossible  for  him 
to  ascribe  to  it  the  same  influence  as  Paul.     To  the  latter,  faith 


154  THE  EPISTLE  OF  JAMES. 

was  the  source  of  an  entirely  new  holy  life  in  Christ,  and  of 
enthusiastic  love  to  God  and  man.  Our  author,  on  the  other 
hand,  regarded  faith  as  something  that  is  still  to  be  made  perfect, 
and  that  finds  this  required  perfection  in  the  love  that  is  due  to 
other  causes,  and  the  good  works  produced  by  this  love.  In  his 
view,  good  works  are  not  the  natural  product  of  faith  (as  in  Gal. 
V.  6),  but  they  are  an  external  addition  to  faith  which  unites 
with  it.  Having  this  idea  of  faith,  our  author  naturally  could 
not  accept  Paul's  doctrine  that  forgiveness  of  sins  and  justifica- 
tion are  bestowed  upon  man  for  his  faith's  sake  alone  (Eom. 
iii.  28 ;  Gal.  ii.  16).  In  his  opinion,  good  works  are  also  required 
for  justification,  while  according  to  the  Pauline  doctrine  they 
can  only  spring  from  the  joyful  consciousness  of  the  entirely 
new  relation  to  God  that  has  been  already  attained  through 
justification. 

That  a  writing  standing  in  a  position  of  antagonism  to  Paul's 
views  of  Christianity  and  his  doctrine  of  justifying  faith,  like 
that  in  the  consideration  of  which  we  are  now  engaged,  could 
be  produced  during  the  apostolic  age,  will  not  be  a  matter  of 
surprise  to  any  one  who  is  acquainted  with  the  circumstances 
of  the  Christian  church  at  that  period  as  revealed  to  us  in  the 
New  Testament  itself.  The  Book  of  Acts  and  the  Epistles  of  the 
apostle  Paul,  especially  the  Epistles  to  the  Galatians  and  the 
Corinthians,  bear  witness  that  the  Christians  of  Jewish  origin, 
and  especially  those  belonging  to  the  community  at  Jerusalem, 
could  not  understand  his  system  of  ideas,  that  they  met  him 
with  hostile  feelings,  and  that  there  were  some  among  them  who 
endeavoured  to  throw  suspicion  u]3ou  him  in  the  communities 
which  he  had  himself  founded,  and  to  obstruct  his  apostolic 
labours.  The  circumstance  that  those  who  thus  acted  loved  to 
appeal  to  Peter  and  James  (Gal.  ii.  12 ;  1  Cor.  i.  12),  leads  us  to 
suppose  that  even  they  were  not  satisfied  with  Paul,  that  they 
disapproved  of  his  principle  of  the  abolition  of  the  Law,  and 
regarded  his  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith  as  erroneous  and 
dano'erous. 


THE  EPISTLE  OF  JAMES.  155 

This  disagreement  between  Paul  and  these  two  apostles, 
favoured  the  opinion  which  was  early  current  in  the  church, 
that  the  Epistle  before  us  was  the  work  of  James,  But  since 
there  are  several  men  of  this  name  who  appear  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament, it  still  remains  to  inquire  which  of  them  may  be  regarded 
as  the  probable  author  of  this  Epistle.  It  was  not  the  apostle 
James,  son  of  Zebedee  and  brother  of  John ;  for  he  was  beheaded 
in  the  year  44  in  Jerusalem,  by  command  of  king  Herod 
Agrippa  (Acts  xii.  1,  2).  Nor  was  it  indeed  this  James  whom 
ecclesiastical  legend  made  the  author  of  our  Epistle,  but  one  who 
did  not  belong  strictly  to  the  company  of  the  apostles,  one  whom 
we  early  meet  with,  however,  as  an  influential  member  of  the 
Christian  community  at  Jerusalem,  and  held  in  high  esteem 
there,  who  plays  a  prominent  part  in  the  assembly  of  apostles 
and  elders  described  in  the  fifteenth  chapter  of  the  Book  of  Acts, 
with  whom  Paul  had  several  interviews  there  (Gal.  i.  19,  ii.  9), 
who,  as  Paul  expresses  it,  was  regarded,  together  with  Peter  and 
John,  as  a  pillar  of  the  church  (Gal.  ii.  9),  and  whom  Paul  even 
speaks  of  as  an  apostle  (Gal.  i.  19).  This  James  was  for  a 
number  of  years  president  of  the  Christian  community  in  Jeru- 
salem, until,  as  the  Jewish  historian  Josephus  informs  us,  he 
suffered  a  martyr's  death  in  the  year  62  at  the  instigation  of  the 
then  high-priest  Ananus. 

Josephus  calls  this  James  a  hrotlier  of  Jesus,  and  Paul  also 
speaks  of  him  in  the  same  way  (Gal.  i.  19).  The  simplest  expla- 
nation of  this  is  that  he  was  actually  a  brother  of  the  Lord.  And 
indeed  among  the  brothers  of  Christ  mentioned  in  the  Gospels 
we  find  one  named  James  (Matt.  xiii.  55  ;  Mark  vi.  3).  The 
opinion  has  very  frequently  been  expressed  that  he  was  not, 
properly  speaking,  a  brother  of  Jesus,  but  is  only  loosely  spoken 
of  as  such,  and  was  really  a  cousin ;  that,  in  fact,  he  was  one 
and  the  same  person  with  James,  the  son  of  Alphseus,  whom 
we  find  among  the  apostles,  who  was  related  to  Jesus  as  the 
son  of  his  mother's  sister  (John  xix.  25 ;  comp.  Mark  xv.  40). 
This  is  not  the  place  to  discuss  this  opinion,  especially  as  it  rests 


156  THE  EFISTLE  OF  JAMES. 

upon  assumptions  to  which  there  are  important  linguistic  objec- 
tions. 

We  are  therefore  fully  justified  in  regarding  the  revered  pre- 
sident of  the  community  at  Jerusalem  as  an  actual  brother  of 
the  Lord.  We  might  be  surprised,  indeed,  to  find  this  James 
among  the  enthusiastic  adherents  of  Jesus,  inasmuch  as  his  bro- 
thers did  not  believe  in  him  (John  vii.  5).  It  appears,  however, 
that  after  the  crucifixion  a  great  change  took  place  in  them.  A 
short  time  after  Jesus  disappeared  from  the  earth,  we  find  his 
brothers  among  the  believers  (Acts  i.  14).  Was  it,  perhaps,  the 
resurrection  of  Jesus  that  produced  this  change  of  tone  in  them, 
and  was  the  James  of  whom  Paul  tells  us  that  the  Lord  had 
appeared  to  him  (1  Cor.  xv.  7),  and  whom  he  appears  to  distin- 
guish from  the  apostles,  the  very  man  of  whom  we  are  speaking  ? 

To  him,  then,  the  Christian  church  early  ascribed  the  Epistle 
which  is  still  extant  in  the  New  Testament  under  his  name.  In 
favour  of  this  opinion  some  arguments  may  be  adduced,  the 
importance  of  which  cannot  be  doubted.  It  agrees  with  the 
known  ideas  of  James,  and  with  the  relation  in  which  he  stood 
to  Paul.  It  is  confirmed  by  the  circumstance  that  the  writer 
of  the  Epistle  does  not  reckon  himself  one  of  the  apostles,  but 
calls  himself  a  servant  of  God  and  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  (i.  1). 
If  what  is  stated  by  ancient  Christian  writers  be  correct,  that  the 
surname  of  the  "righteous"  was  given  to  him,  and  that  he  was 
distinguished  for  the  strictness  of  his  life,  this  would  explain  the 
great  emphasis  which  he  lays  upon  the  performance  of  good 
works.  [This  surname  is  commonly  rendered  "  the  just "  in 
English,  from  the  Latin  "Justus,"  but  the  word  is  the  same  in 
Greek  that  is  better  rendered  "righteous."] 

The  hypothesis  that  this  James  was  the  author  of  our  Epistle 
is  further  supported  by  the  indications  which  we  find  in  the 
Epistle  itself  of  the  date  of  its  composition.  There  is  no  mention 
of  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  and  the  temple.  Christianity, 
however,  has  already  spread  beyond  the  limits  of  Palestine  (i.  1). 
The  believers  have  been  subject  to  divers  trials  (i.  2),  and  it 


THE  EPISTLE  OF  JAMES.  157 

would  seem  as  if  all  had  not  remained  steadfast  under  them 
(i.  13  sq.).  The  writer  is  painfully  moved  by  the  moral  delin- 
quencies which  have  crept  in  among  the  Christians,  especially 
the  oppression  which  the  poorer  and  humbler  brethren  suffer 
at  the  hands  of  the  rich  and  those  of  higher  rank  (v.  1  sqq.).  He 
blames  also  the  vain  desire  to  put  oneself  forward  as  a  teacher 
in  the  Christian  gatherings  (iii.  1).  Everything  appears  to  him 
to  indicate  a  complete  revolution  of  all  things,  which  he  expects 
will  be  brought  about  by  the  re-appearance  of  the  Lord  in  all  his 
glory  (v.  7,  9). 

But  if  these  arguments  may  be  adduced  in  favour  of  the  theory 
that  the  James  who  has  been  supposed  by  the  church  to  have 
written  the  Epistle  really  was  the  author  of  it,  we  must  not  omit 
to  mention,  on  the  other  hand,  that  there  are  certain  difficulties 
in  the  way  of  this  supposition  which  readily  explain  the  oppo- 
sition to  it  which  has  been  raised  by  a  considerable  number  of 
very  distinguished  theologians  of  our  own  day.  Grave  suspicions 
are  at  once  aroused  by  the  fact  that  the  Epistle  is  not  distinctly 
mentioned  as  a  work  of  James  until  the  third  century,  and  that 
famous  early  Christian  teachers  express  themselves  doubtful 
about  this  authorship,  or  even  expressly  deny  that  it  is  his.  It 
is  further  remarkable  that  the  writer  calls  himself  a  servant  of 
God  and  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  (i.  1),  and  not  brother  of  the  Lord, 
as  he  was  early  called  (Gal.  i.  9).  Attention  has  also  fairly  been 
drawn  to  the  dependent  relation  in  which  the  Epistle  appears  to 
stand  to  several  of  the  Kew-Testament  writings,  especially  some 
of  the  Epistles  of  the  apostle  Paul.  It  may  further  be  urged  that 
it  is  not  easy  to  explain  how  James,  considering  the  circumstances 
of  his  life  which  are  known  to  us,  could  have  attained  such  skill 
in  Greek  style  as  the  writer  of  the  Epistle  displays.  Hence, 
however  well  supported  the  opinion  that  this  Epistle  was  written 
by  James,  the  well-known  head  of  the  community  at  Jerusalem, 
it  cannot  after  all  be  regarded  as  certain.  The  true  origin  of  the 
Epistle  remains  doubtful. 

Whoever  the  writer  may  have  been,  he  follows  no  strict 


158  THE  EPISTLE  OF  JAMES. 

arrangement  in  his  composition,  but  gives  himself  up  to  the 
natural  flow  of  his  thoughts,  and  sometimes  passes  rapidly  from 
one  subject  to  another.  His  language  is  vivid,  forcible,  and 
sometimes  rises  almost  to  poetic  flights.  His  skill  in  the  mani- 
pulation of  the  Greek  language  distinguishes  him  in  a  remark- 
able manner  from  almost  all  the  other  writers  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, at  the  same  time  that  it  cannot  but  force  upon  us  the 
question  raised  above,  how  he  attained  it. 


THE  EPISTLE  OF  JAMES. 


Exhortation  to  steadfastness  amid  trials,  and  to  p-ayer  for  wisdom. 
The  poor  and  the  rich  are  admonished.  Instruction  regarding 
temptations.     Exhortation  to  practical  religion. 

1.  The  twelve  tribes :  the  usual  phrase  for  the  Jewish  nation 
(Matt.  xix.  28,  &c.).  What  James  means  is  the  Israelites  who 
have  come  over  to  Christianity,  or  more  accurately,  as  appears 
from  the  words  lohich  are  scattered  abroad  (lit.  "  in  the  disper- 
sion"), converts  to  Christianity  from  among  the  Israelites  dwelling 
out  of  Palestine.  Prom  the  point  of  view  of  his  own  doctrine, 
he  saw  the  proper  nucleus  of  the  Christian  church  only  in  the 
Jewish  Christians.  The  Gentile  Christians  appeared  to  him  to 
stand  in  somewhat  the  same  relation  to  the  church  in  which  the 
proselytes  stood  to  the  Jewish  people. 

2.  It  is  evident  from  the  context  that  what  is  here  meant  is 
persecutions  that  are  suffered  for  the  faith's  sake. — Fall  should 
be  "have  fallen." 

3.  Patience  should  be  "  steadfastness." 

4.  Eead,  "  But  let  steadfastness  be  perfect  unto  the  end  [lit. 
"  have  a  complete  work"],  that  ye  may  be  perfect  and  blameless, 
and  nothing  may  be  wanting  to  you." 

5.  What  is  spoken  of  here  is  that  moral  wisdom,  which  is  a 
necessary  condition  of  moral  goodness. 

9 — 12.  It  is  quite  clear  from  ver.  12  that  the  sayings  con- 
tained in  these  verses  are  connected  with  the  exhortation  to  a 
steadfast  endurance  of  trials  in  ver.  2.  Poor  and  rich  alike  must 
endure  steadfastly  in  times  of  religious  persecution ;  the  former 
supported  by  the  prospect  of  the  glorious  exaltation  promised 
them  in  the  kingdom  to  be  established  by  Christ  at  his  second 
coming ;  the  latter  in  the  consciousness  that  wealth  after  all  is 
perishable,  and  all  earthly  glory  must  end  in  the  dissolution 
which  will  take  place  with  the  return  of  Christ. — Let  the  brother, 


160  JAMES.  [i.  9—25 

&c. :  "But  let  the  brother  who  is  low  glory  in  his  exaltation"  [so 
lit.].  Lowliness  here  includes  poverty. — The  rich  (and  high)  will 
perish,  as  such,  i.e.  will  cease  to  be  rich  and  high,  he  will  lose  his 
earthly  happiness  and  his  honour  before  the  world. — Endureth : 
i.e.  passes  through  without  yielding. — Temptation:  "trial." — 
When  he  is  tried :  "  when  he  has  been  proved." 

13 — 15.  God  tempts  man,  not  for  the  purpose  of  driving  him 
to  apostasy  and  sin,  but  rather  to  give  him  an  opportunity  of 
proving  his  faith.  He  who  succumbs  to  temptation  has  only 
himself  to  complain  of  that  he  has  not  opposed  the  necessary 
resistance  to  the  evil  lusts  and  desires  awakened  by  the  tempta- 
tion. 

15.  Finished :  "  completed." — Death :  This  word  signifies  here, 
as  often  in  the  New  Testament,  all  the  physical  and  spiritual 
misery  which  arises  from  sin. 

16  sqq.  So  far  from  its  being  possible  that  God  should  compel 
any  one  to  evil,  He  is  the  source  of  every  good  that  man  enjoys. 

17.  Father  of  lights  [lit.  Father  of  the  lights]  should  be  "  Cause 
of  the  heavenly  lights." — Shadoio  of  turning  [so  lit.,  the  meaning 
probably  being  shadow  caused  by  turning] :  "  alternation  of  day 
and  night." 

18.  Conclusion  from  what  has  preceded. — Begat :  of  course 
in  the  spiritual  sense. — First  fruits  of  his  creatures:  What  the 
first  Christians  were  made  by  the  second  birth,  brought  about  by 
the  help  of  God,  all  succeeding  Christians  should  be,  viz.  new 
creatures  made  holy. 

19.  Wherefore:  i.e.  because  as  Christians  we  have  been  be- 
gotten anew  by  God. — [Some  of  the  best  MSS.  read,  "  Ye  know, 
my  beloved  brethren ;  but  let  every  man,"  &c.] 

21.  Superfluity  of  naughtiness :  i.e.  that  wickedness  which  is 
so  abundant. — Engrafted :  "  implanted." 

22.  Deceiving  your  own  selves :  imagining  that  the  mere  hearing 
of  the  word  is  itself  sufficient  for  salvation. 

23.  24.  The  ivord  of  truth  makes  us  aware  of  our  moral 
imperfection  and  excites  us  to  improvement.  Unfortunately, 
many  soon  forget  again  what  they  had  recognized  for  a  moment 
in  the  light  of  the  gospel. 

25.  Eead,  "But  whoso  hath  looked  into  the  perfect  law  of 
liberty,  and  continued  therein." — It  is  evident  that  by  the  perfect 


i.  25 — ii.  8]  JAMES.  161 

law  of  liberty  the  writer  means  nothing  else  than  tlie  word  of 
truth,  the  gospel ;  but  what  particular  attribute  of  it  leads  him 
to  call  it  the  law  of  liberty  is  not  quite  certain.  Probably  it  is 
because  it  leads  men  to  do  from  a  free  inner  impulse  that  which 
it  prescribes. 

26.  Becm  to  he:  "think  himself." — In  this  verse  the  writer 
already  has  in  his  mind  the  fault,  which  appeared,  seemingly,  in 
his  time  in  many  forms,  of  the  misuse  of  the  tongue  both  in 
unbidden  teaching  and  also  in  the  utterance  of  angry  speeches. 

[26,  27.  Religion:  The  word  here  used  denotes  rather  a 
religious  act,  "divine  service"  as  we  should  call  it,  than  religion 
generally. — God  and  the  Father :  better,  "  the  God  and  Father," 
or  "  our  God  and  Father."] 

ii. 

Warning  against  party  spirit,  and  against  an  inactive  faith. 

2.  We  may  be  quite  sure  that  the  writer  here  has  in  his  mind 
actual  cases  which  had  come  under  his  own  observation,  and 
which  had  roused  his  indignation  all  the  more  because  he  was 

already  somewhat  prejudiced  against  the  rich. — [Goodly vile: 

more  exactly,  "  brilliant"  .  .  .  .  "  dirty."] 

4.  Eead,  "  Have  ye  not  then  become  at  variance  with  your- 
selves, and  judged  according  to  bad  principles  ?" — The  believing 
Christian  must  surely  know  that  material  wealth  gives  a  man 
no  real  worth,  and  that  in  Christ  rich  and  poor  are  one. 

5.  Eead,  "  Hath  not  God  chosen  those  who  are  poor  in  the 
estimation  of  this  world  to  be  rich  in  regard  to  faith,"  &c. 

6.  Despised :  "  dishonoured." — It  is  clear  from  v.  4  sqq.  that 
there  were  rich  Christians  who  behaved  in  a  most  reprehensible 
manner  towards  the  poorer  brethren.  It  need  scarcely  be  said, 
however,  that  the  reproaches  here  made  by  James  against  rich 
men  generally  could  not  strictly  apply  to  them  all. 

7.  "The  good  [A.V.  worthy,  lit.  "beautiful"]  name"  is  here 
undoubtedly  the  name  of  Christ,  after  whom  the  confessors  of 
the  gospel  had  first  been  called  Christians  in  Antioch  (comp. 
1  Pet.  iv.  14). 

8.  The  royal  laiu :  the  highest  and  most  excellent ;  as  Jesus 
himself  had  declared  it  to  be  (Matt.  xxii.  39). — According  to  the 
Scripture:  Lev.  xix.  18. 

VOL.   Ill,  M 


162  JAMES.  [ii.  10— iii.  18 

10.  The  transgression  of  each  individual  law  testifies  to  a 
want  of  due  respect  for  the  whole  Law. 

13.  Rejoiceth  against  jiidgment  should  be  "  a waiteth  judgment 
with  joyful  confidence"  [lit.  "boasteth  of  judgment,"  or,  as  some 
take  it,  "triumpheth  over  judgment"]. 

18.  It  might  seem  here  as  if  an  objection  was  raised  to  James's 
view.  But  the  speaker  who  is  introduced  is  really  on  his  side, 
and  from  his  position  is  attacking  the  Pauline  doctrine  of  faith. 

19.  Devils  should  be  "  evil  spirits." 

21.  The  case  of  Abraham  is  introduced  in  the  Epistle  to  the 
Eomans  (iv.  15)  for  an  exactly  opposite  purpose. 

25.  The  case  of  Eahab  also  is  adduced  in  the  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews  (xi,  31)  in  favour  of  the  doctrine  of  justification  by 
faith. 

iii. 

War7iing  against  forwardness  in  teaching  and  the  ahise  of  the 

tongue     The  necessity  of  true  tvisdom. 

1.  The  writer  takes  up  again  what  he  has  previously  said 
(i.  19).  It  must  be  remembered  that  in  his  days  teaching  in 
the  Christian  assemblies  was  not  attached  to  any  special  office, 
but  was  open  to  any  one. — Read,  "My  brethren,  be  not  many 
teachers,  and  consider  that  we  (the  teachers)  shall  be  subject  to 
a  more  severe  judgment." 

2.  [Lit.  "For  we  all  stumble  in  many  things.  If  any  man 
stumble  not  in  word,"  &c.] — In  word:  i.e.  in  his  speech  gene- 
rally. The  easier  it  is  for  a  man  to  trip  in  his  speech,  the  more 
strongly  does  the  wise  control  of  the  tongue  tell  in  favour  of  a 
man's  self-control  and  moral  conduct  generally. 

5.  Hoiu  great  a  matter :  "  what  a  forest." — [The  Greek  word 
sometimes  employed  to  denote  material  {matter)  generally,  means 
in  the  strict  sense  "  wood."] 

6.  Course  of  nature  should  be  "wheel  of  our  life." 
13.  Conversation :  "  conduct." 

17.  Intreated:  "persuaded." 

18.  Those  who  teach  and  live  in  the  spirit  of  peaceful  wisdom 
have  an  improving  and  soothing  influence  upon  others. 


iv.  1—13]  JAMES.  163 

iv. 
Warning  against  contentiousness.     Exlwrtation  to  humility  and 
prohibition  of  unloving  judgments.     Indication  of  the  common 
source  of  all  these  sins,  viz.  the  dominion  of  desire. 

1.  Lusts  should  be  "desires"  [or  more  lit.  "pleasures"]. 

2.  Desire  to  have :  "  envy." 

3.  Consume  it  iipon  your  lusts :  better,  "  waste  it  in  your  plea- 
sures." 

4.  The  Hebrews,  who  conceived  of  the  relation  of  their  nation 
to  God  as  a  marriage,  regarded  all  who  were  unfaithful  to  God 
as  adulterous.  The  particular  faithlessness  toward  God  which 
the  writer  here  had  in  his  mind,  consisted  in  an  extravagant  love 
of  the  world. 

5.  The  spirit,  &c.,  should  be  "  The  spirit  that  dwelleth  in  us 
longeth  jealously:"  i.e.  longeth  for  God,  and  this  longing  excludes 
the  love  of  the  world. — What  passage  of  Scripture  the  writer  has 
in  his  mind  is  uncertain,  perhaps  Deut.  vi.  5. 

6.  Eead,  "  Yea,  it  (i.  e.  the  spirit)  giveth  greater  grace,  where- 
fore it  (i.e.  the  Scripture)  saith,"  &c. — The  spirit  giveth  greater 
grace,  i.e.  he  who  is  restrained  from  the  love  of  the  world  by  the 
spirit  of  God,  which  quickens  him,  obtains  thereby  an  incom- 
parably greater  blessing  than  the  world  can  give. — The  passage 
quoted  is  from  Prov.  iii.  34,  and  is  also  cited  1  Pet.  v.  5.  The 
proud,  mentioned  here,  are  such  as  are  puffed  up  with  foolish 
pride  on  account  of  worldly  possessions  and  honour.  The  humble 
are  those  who  strive  after  God  only,  and  attach  no  value  to 
worldly  things. 

8.  Purify  should  be  "  sanctify." 

9.  True  repentance  is  necessarily  united  with  inner  tribulation 
(2  Cor.  vii.  10). 

11,  12.  The  law  is  here  the  Christian  law,  which  makes  love 
the  fundamental  commandment.  Evil-speaking  and  inconsiderate 
judgment  of  others,  is  a  serious  transgression  of  this  law ;  and, 
at  the  same  time,  judgment  and  condemnation  of  others  is  an 
unwarranted  interference  in  that  which  is  the  prerogative  of  the 
law. 

13.  Those  who  are  addressed  in  the  section  of  the  Epistle 
extending  from  here  to  v.  6,  are  the  same  his  aversion  to  whom 
the  writer  has  already  several  times  signified,  pretended  Chris- 

M  2 


164  JAMES.  [iv.  13— V.  12 

tians  who  were  lost  in  worldliness,  and  had  l3ecome  hanghty  and 
overbearing,  and  involved  themselves  in  the  guilt  of  serious  injus- 
tice to  the  poorer  and  humbler  brethren.  Looking  to  the  return 
of  the  Lord,  which  was  believed  to  be  at  hand,  James  proclaims  to 
them  a  heavy  sentence. — And  continue,  &c.,  should  be  "  and  spend 
a  year  there  and  trade,"  &c. 

[15.  Read,  "  Instead  of  saying,"  &c.,  ver.  14  being  a  parenthesis, 
and  ver.  13  being  taken  up  again  here.] 

17.  A  general  expression  of  a  deep  truth,  applied  here,  how- 
ever, especially  to  the  persons  addressed  in  this  passage,  who  as 
Christians  ought  to  learn  the  impropriety  of  their  overbearing 
disposition  and  the  sacred  duty  of  humility. 

V. 

Warning  to  unjust  rich  men.   Exhortation  to  patience.   Prohibition 
of  oaths.     Hecommendation  of  Christian  intercession. 

2.  In  prophetic  style,  that  which  is  regarded  as  immediately 
and  with  certainty  im^Dending  is  spoken  of  as  already  accom- 
plished. 

3.  The  destruction  of  your  wealth  shall  be  the  announcement 
of  your  own  destruction. — \^For  the  last  days:  lit.  "in  the  last 
days."] 

4.  Kept  hack  hy  fraud  should  be  "withheld." — The  offence 
here  alluded  to  was  strictly  forbidden  in  the  Old  Testament 
(Lev.  xix.  13 ;  Jer.  xxii.  13). 

5.  A  day  of  slaughter:  i.e.  a  day  when  a  beast  has  been 
slaughtered  for  the  house. 

7.  Until  he  receive  should  be  "  until  it  receive." — The  early  and 
the  latter  rain  =  the  autumnal  and  spring  rains. 

8.  Draiveth  nigh :  "  is  nigh."     Lit.  "  has  drawn  nigh." 

9.  Grudge  not :  "  sigh  not."  The  meaning  is,  do  not  secretly 
pray  for  one  another's  punishment,  lest  you  be  condemned  for 
such  an  expression  of  vengeance. 

11.  Eead,  "  Behold  we  count  them  blessed  which  endure  stead- 
fastly. Ye  have  heard  of  the  patience  of  Job,  and  the  end  M'hich 
the  Lord  brought  about.  See  that  He  is  compassionate  and 
merciful." — The  end:  the  blessed  termination  of  the  sufferings  of 
Job. 

12.  Let  your  yea  he  yea,  and  your  nay,  nay:  i.e.  abide  by  your 
simple  yes  or  no. — The  circumstance  that  the  writer  only  quotes 


V.  12—20]  JAMES.  165 

here  such  forms  of  oath  as  were  not  held  to  be  binding  among 
the  Jews  (by  the  heaven  and  by  the  earth),  has  led  some  to  the 
conclusion  that  he  did  not  forbid  swearing  by  God,  which  is 
expressly  allowed  by  the  Mosaic  Law  (Lev.  xix.  12  ;  Deut.  vi.  13). 
But  this  is  contradicted  by  the  words  which  immediately  follow, 
which  seem  to  contain  an  unconditional  prohibition  of  oaths.  In 
this  sense,  then,  the  writer  appears  to  have  understood  the  words 
of  Christ  (Matt.  v.  33 — 36).  Still  it  may  be  supposed  that  this 
prohibition  only  relates  to  voluntary  oaths,  not  to  those  which 
are  imposed  by  the  duly  constituted  authorities. 

13.  Psalms :  should  be  "  hymns  of  praise." 

14,  15.  That  the  Jews  ascribed  important  healing  powers  to 
oil,  is  plain  from  Jer.  viii.  22,  xlvi.  11 ;  Luke  x.  34;  Mark  vi.  13. 
James  further  ascribes  here  a  power  to  the  prayer  of  the  elders 
and  anointing  the  sick  with  oil,  which  was  assuredly  as  little 
justified  by  experience  then  as  it  would  be  to-day.  The  appeal 
of  the  Catholics  to  this  passage  in  favour  of  their  doctrine  of 
extreme  unction  is  altogether  inadmissible;  for  it  contains  no 
precept  of  Christ,  but  simply  refers  to  usages  of  the  time.  What 
is  spoken  of  here  is  not  a  sacramental  transaction,  but  simply 
what  is  to  be  done  for  the  physical  and  spiritual  welfare  of  the 
patient. 

16.  Read,  "  The  prayer  of  a  righteous  man  availeth  much  if 
it  be  in  (living)  operation"  [lit.  "worked"]. — Here  the  same 
excessive  confidence  in  the  healing  power  of  prayer  is  expressed 
as  in  the  preceding  verses. 

17,  18.  See  1  Kings  xvii.  1,  xviii.  41  sqq. 

20.  The  word  death  is  here  used  in  the  same  sense  as  in  i.  15. 
The  meaning  of  the  last  words  of  the  verse  is :  He  will  save  a 
soul  from  destruction  by  helping  the  convert  to  obtain  forgive- 
ness of  his  many  sins. 


THE   EIEST   EPISTLE    OF   PETEE, 


The  First  Epistle  of  Peter  purports  to  have  been  written  "by 
the  apostle  in  Babylon  (v.  13),  i.e.  in  Eome;  and  (John)  Mark 
is  supposed  to  have  been  with  him  as  a  spiritual  son.  This  is 
entirely  in  accordance  with  the  ancient  tradition,  which  repre- 
sents Peter  as  having  come  to  Eome,  and  there,  with  Paul,  suf- 
fered a  martyr's  death  in  the  Neronian  persecution  (A.D.  64). 
Nor  is  mention  wanting  of  Silvanus,  the  friend  of  Paul,  by  whom 
Peter  is  supjDosed  to  have  written  this  Epistle  (1  Pet.  v.  12).  The 
whole  Epistle  belongs  to  a  period  of  persecution  of  the  Christians 
(iii.  15, 17,  iv.  14 — 17,  v.  9, 10).  Erom  such  a  position  of  affairs 
Peter  is  here  represented  as  having  addressed  an  Epistle  to  the 
Christians  of  Pontus,  Galatia,  Cappadocia,  Asia  and  Bithynia. 

The  composition  of  the  First  Epistle  of  Peter  by  the  apostle 
Peter  in  Eome  at  the  beginning  of  the  Neronian  persecution 
cannot  be  reconciled,  however,  with  the  contents  of  the  Epistle 
itself.  The  close  association  of  Peter  with  Silvanus,  the  friend 
and  follower  of  Paul,  is  simply  evidence  of  the  attempt  to  bring 
Peter  and  Paul  together  in  complete  harmony  with  one  another ; 
and  the  Peter  of  this  Epistle,  both  in  thought  and  expression,  is 
an  imitator  of  the  Pauline  Epistles  (i.  5,  ii.  6,  11,  13,  iii.  18). 
The  Epistle  even  betrays  a  dependence  upon  the  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews  (iii.  18),  the  Eevelation  of  John  (v.  12),  and  the  Epistle 
of  James  (i.  1,  iv.  8,  v.  5). 

Decisive,  however,  is  the  fact  that  the  Epistle  assumes  a  uni- 
versal persecution  of  tlie  Christians  throughout  the  whole  world, 
or  at  any  rate  throughout  the  Eoman  empire,  especially  in  v.  9. 


THE  FIRST  EPISTLE  OF  PETER.  167 

The  Neronian  persecution  was  confined  to  the  Christians  of  Eome. 
It  was  intended  as  a  penalty  inflicted  upon  them  for  the  guilt  of 
the  burning  of  Eome.  We  cannot  place  this  Epistle  earlier  than 
the  time  of  the  emperor  Trajan  (A.  D.  98  — 117),  who  issued 
the  first  legal  decree  in  regard  to  the  proceedings  of  the  Eoman 
authorities  against  the  Christians,  and  expressly  enacted  that 
the  name  or  confession  of  Christianity  itself,  without  any  crime, 
if  it  were  not  practically  denied,  was  to  be  punished  with 
death.  This  is  the  very  state  of  the  law  which  the  First  Epistle 
of  Peter  assumes.  The  Christians  who  are  slandered  by  the 
heathen  as  evil-doers  simply  because  they  are  Christians  (ii.  12, 
iii.  16  [iv.  14]),  must  live  in  constant  expectation  of  being  dragged 
to  trial  and  condemned  to  death  (iii.  15,  17,  iv.  19).  They  are 
punished  without  any  other  guilt,  simply  as  Christians  (iii.  15, 
17,  iv.  1),  and  the  penalty  is  death  (v.  10).  This  persecution 
extends  to  the  Christian  brotherhood  throughout  the  whole  world 
(v.  9).  The  exhortations  to  obedience  to  the  emperor  and  all 
who  are  in  authority  (ii.  13  sqq.),  are  explained  by  the  fact  that 
the  Eoman  authorities  had  already  begun  to  take  legal  proceed- 
ings against  the  Christians  as  such.  Nor  is  it  merely  accidental 
that,  in  the  inscription  of  the  Epistle,  Pontus  and  Bithynia  are 
mentioned.  It  was  to  the  governors  of  these  provinces  that  the 
emperor  Trajan  sent  out  his  decree  concerning  the  Christians. 
On  the  other  hand,  that  we  must  not  look  later  than  the  time  of 
Trajan  is  plain  from  the  fact  that  the  persecution  was  regarded 
as  a  "  strange  thing"  (iv.  12),  and  from  the  reference  to  informers 
[A.V.  husyhodies,  iv.  15]  Avhom  this  very  emperor  punished. 

We  must  conclude,  then,  that  the  Epistle  was  written  by  a 
Eoman  Christian,  in  the  time  of  Trajan,  in  the  name  of  the 
apostle  Peter,  whose  memory  was  so  celebrated  in  Eome,  and  that 
it  was  intended  to  strengthen  all  Christendom,  but  especially  the 
most  oppressed  communities  of  Asia.  Although  he  has  written 
only  in  the  name  of  Peter,  he  has  exhorted  oppressed  and  suffer- 
ing Christendom  in  a  genuinely  Christian  spirit.  The  recognition 
and  use  of  this  Epistle  begins  with  the  end  of  the  first  half  of 


168  THE  FIRST  EPISTLE  OF  PETER. 

the  second  century.  Its  post-apostolic  origin  has  first  been  shown 
by  modern  Protestant  scriptural  research. 

The  tone  of  the  Epistle  itself  also  confirms  what  has  been  said 
above  as  to  its  origin.  We  find  no  sign  remaining  of  that  semi- 
legal Christianity  which  the  real  Peter  represented,  and  repre- 
sented in  actual  opposition  to  Paul.  The  conception  of  Chris- 
tianity as  free  from  the  LaAv,  which  was  introduced  by  Paul, 
underlies  the  whole.  The  good  works  which  are  required  (ii.  14, 
15,  20,  iii.  6, 17,  iv.  19)  are  no  longer  works  of  the  Law,  Never- 
theless, the  First  Epistle  of  Peter  does  not  take  up  a  special 
Pauline  position.  It  employs  Pauline  thoughts  and  expressions, 
but  in  a  general  Christian  sense.  This  appeal  in  the  name  of 
Peter  is  Pauline  in  principle,  but  not  in  the  sense  of  any  definite 
opposition  to  Jewish  Christianity.  In  iii.  21,  there  is  a  certain 
amount  of  opposition  to  Judaism.  Elsewhere,  it  is  not  justifica- 
tion, but  salvation  of  the  soul  generally,  that  is  attached  to  faith 
(i.  5,  9),  and  the  power  of  love  to  wipe  out  sins  is  acknowledged 
(iv.  8),  after  James  v.  20.  The  believers,  who  are  here  represented 
simply  as  Gentile  Christians  (i.  14,  18,  ii.  9,  10,  iii.  6,  iv.  13), 
have  obtained  the  abolition  of  their  sins  through  the  death  of 
Christ  (i.  2,  19,  ii.  21,  24,  iii.  18,  iv.  1),  and  by  his  resurrection 
have  been  born  again  unto  a  living  hope  (i.  3,  21).  Christendom, 
which  has  been  born  again  to  a  new  life  (i.  2,  3,  ii.  2),  is  therefore 
the  spiritual  temple  of  God  (ii.  5,  iv.  17),  having  been  made  so 
by  the  indwelling  of  the  Spirit  of  God  (iv.  14).  The  only  new 
doctrine  here  is  that  Christ,  after  the  death  of  his  body,  preached 
to  the  spirits  imprisoned  in  the  under-world  (iii.  19),  and  brought 
the  gospel  even  to  the  dead  (iv.  6),  The  doctrine  of  the  descent 
of  Christ  into  hell,  which  is  found  here  for  the  very  first  time, 
has  been  one  of  the  chief  stumbling-blocks  of  modern  rationalistic 
interpretation,  but  it  contains  originally  the  beajitiful  thought 
that  the  salvation  of  Christianity  was  offered  even  to  the  spirits 
of  the  under-world. 

The  object  of  the  Epistle  is  to  exhort  the  readers  and  to  con- 
firm them  in  their  Christianity  in  the  midst  of  persecution  (v,  12), 


THE  FIRST  EPISTLE  OF  PETER.  169 

After  the  address  (i.  1,  2),  the  writer  begins  with  an  encouraging 
direction  of  his  readers,  who  are  in  the  midst  of  the  crucial  fires 
of  persecution,  to  the  future  glory  (i.  3 — 12).  In  accordance 
with  this  expectation,  the  suffering  Christians  are  exhorted  in 
general  terms  to  holiness  in  the  conduct  of  life  altogether,  a 
holiness  such  as  belongs  to  Christianity,  and  worthy  of  the 
redemption  through  the  blood  of  Christ  and  the  destination  of 
Christendom  to  be  a  holy  people  of  God  (i.  13 — ii.  10).  The 
exhortation  to  holy  conduct  then  descends  more  into  particulars 
in  regard  to  the  position  of  Christendom  surrounded  by  a  heathen 
world,  and  in  regard  to  its  own  degrees  and  offices  (ii.  11 — iii.  12). 
Beginning  with  the  relation  to  the  heathen  and  the  heathen 
authorities  (ii.  11 — 14),  it  passes  on  to  consideration  of  the  con- 
duct of  freemen  (ii.  15 — 17),  servants  or  slaves  (ii.  18 — 25),  wives 
and  husbands  (iii.  1 — 7),  and  finally  runs  off  into  a  general  con- 
clusion (iii.  8 — 12).  Thirdly,  more  definite  attention  is  paid  in 
the  exhortation  to  a  steadfast  confession  of  Christianity  in  a  time 
of  persecution  (iii.  13 — iv.  6).  Sufferings  must  be  borne  for 
righteousness'  sake  after  the  pattern  of  Christ,  who,  having  been 
slain  in  the  flesh,  manifested  his  spiritual  life  even  in  the  under- 
world, and  by  his  resurrection  was  exalted  to  the  right  hand  of 
God  (iii.  13 — 22).  In  treating  of  the  sufferings  of  Christ  in  the 
flesh,  the  exhortation  passes  again  to  the  subject  of  morality  in 
general,  strengthened  now,  however,  by  its  reference. to  Christ  as 
judge  of  the  living  and  the  dead  (iv.  1 — 6).  By  a  reference  to 
the  nearness  of  the  universal  judgment,  the  exhortation  is  made 
still  more  incisive  and  more  urgent  (iv.  7 — 19).  The  conclusion 
(cap.  V.)  contains  general  exhortations  addressed  to  the  elders 
and  to  private  members  of  the  communities  (v.  1 — 11),  and 
finally  terminates  in  a  purely  personal  statement  and  personal 
greetings  (v.  12 — 14). 


THE  FIEST  EPISTLE  OF  PETEE. 

i.  1,  2.  Address. 

1.  To  the  strangers  scattered  throughout,  &c.,  should  be  "  to  the 
chosen  sojourners  of  the  dispersion  in,"  &c.  The  Christians  were 
regarded  as  only  sojourners  upon  this  earth  (comp.  i.  7,  ii.  11 ; 
Phil.  iii.  20  ;  Heb.  xi.  13).  The  dispersion  of  the  Jewish  people 
of  God  throughout  the  world  had  already  been  transferred  to  the 
new  people  of  God,  the  Christians  (James  i.  1). 

2.  Meet  should  be  omitted  here,  having  already  been  taken 
in  ver.  1. — Sprinkling  of  the  hlood  of  Jesus  Christ :  i.  e.  sprinkling 
with  the  blood  of  Jesus  Christ  (comp.  Heb.  xii.  24)  as  the  ancient 
people  of  God  was  sprinkled  with  the  blood  of  the  covenant 
(comp.  Exod.  xxiv.  8;  Heb.  ix.  19). 

i.  3 — 12.  The  future  glory  a  consolation  in  suffering. 
i.  3—9. 

3.  Blessed  he  the  God  and  Father  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ : 
Christ  still  occupies  a  position  inferior  to  that  of  God. 

5.  Strictly,  "  Who  are  kept  (as  in  ward)  in  the  power  of  God," 
&c.  This  being  kept  in  ward  by  faith,  reminds  us  of  the  keeping 
in  ward  under  the  Law  with  a  view  to  the  faith  that  was  to  come, 
in  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians  (Gal.  iii.  23).  Faith  is  actually 
regarded  as  the  medium  of  the  divine  destination  to  salvation, 
and  not  even,  as  in  Paul's  writings,  as  man's  own  peculiar  act. 
This  is  anything  rather  than  Petrine, 

7 — 9.  Eead,  "  That  the  test  of  your  faith  may  be  found  much 
more  precious  than  gold  which  perishes,  but  is  tested  by  fire, 
unto  praise  and  glory  and  honour  in  the  revelation  of  Jesus 
Christ;  whom,  not  having  seen,  ye  love;  in  whom,  not  now 
seeing  him,  but  believing,  ye  rejoice  with  joy  unspeakable  and 
full  of  glory,  receiving  (i.e.  since  ye  receive)  the  end  of  your 
faith,  the  salvation  of  your  souls." 

i.  10—12. 
The  glory  of  Christian  salvation  is  here  exhibited  by  reference 


i.  10— ii.  2]  7.  PETER.  171 

to  the  yearning  of  the  prophets  who  foretold  it,  and  the  inquisi- 
tiveness  of  the  angels  who  sought  to  penetrate  its  mystery. 

10.  The  grace  that  shoidd  come  unto  you  should  be  "  the  grace 
that  concerns  you,"  or  "is  directed  towards  you."  [Lit.  "the 
grace  unto  you."] 

12.  Eead,  "To  whom  it  was  revealed  that  they  served  not 
themselves,  but  us  [or,  according  to  the  best  MSS.,  "you"],  in 
those  things  which  have  now  been  announced  to  you  through 
them  that  have  preached  the  gospel,"  &c. — "  Served  us  in  those 
things,"  i.e.  officially  announced  them  to  us. —  With  the  Holy 
Ghost:  "through  [lit.  "in"]  the  Holy  Spirit." 

i.  13 — ii.  10.  General  exhortation  to  holiness  of  life  and  conduct. 

13.  Wherefore  gird  up  the  loins  of  your  7)iind :  Figurative 
expression  from  the  girding  up  of  the  loins  in  running. — And 
hope,  &c. :  "  and  hope  entirely  for  the  grace  that  is  being  offered 
unto  you  in  the  revelation  of  Jesus  Christ." 

14.  15.  Read,  "As  children  of  obedience,  not  fashioned  like 
unto  the  former  lusts  in  your  ignorance,  but  according  to  the 
Holy  One  who  called  you,  be  ye  also  holy  in  all  conduct." — 
"The  Holy  One  who  called  you"  =  God. 

16.  Comp.  Levit.  xi.  44,  xix.  2.  In  accordance  with  the  Chris- 
tian view,  the  passage  here  quoted  is  applied  to  inner  moral 
purity. 

[18.  Conversation  =  conduct  of  life.] 

19.  As  of  a  lamh  ivithoid  blemish  and  without  spot :  The  beasts 
for  sacrifice  were  required  to  be  without  any  defect;  see  Levit, 
XX  ii.  20  sq. 

21.  That  your  faith,  &c.,  should  be,  "  so  that  your  faith  and 
hope  are  in  God." 

22.  Eead,  "  And  sanctify  your  souls  in  the  obedience  of  truth 
unto  unfeigned  brotherly  love,  and  love  one  another  fervently 
from  a  pure  heart,"  [Some  old  MSS.  read  simply,  "from  the 
heart."] — "In  the  obedience  of  truth:"  i.e.  in  obedience  to  the  truth. 

[23.  For  ever :  not  in  the  oldest  MSS.] 

24.  Comp.  Is.  xl.  6  sq. — The  grass  withereth,  &c. :  "  The  grass 
is  withered  and  the  flower  fallen  away," 

ii,  2.  Read,  "  And,  as  new-born  babes,  desire  ye  the  reasonable 
pure  milk,  that  ye  may  increase  in  it  unto  salvation." 


172  7.  PETER.  [ii.  4 — 11 

4,  5.  Eead,  "  To  whom  approaching  as  unto  the  living  stone, 
rejected  by  men,  but  with  God  chosen,  precious,  ye  likewise  as 
living  stones  are  being  built  up,  as  a  spiritual  house,  to  a  holy 
priesthood,  to  offer  up  spiritual  sacrifices,  acceptable  unto  God 
through  Jesus  Christ," — Isaiah  spoke  of  a  chosen  precious  corner- 
stone in  Sion  (Is.  xxviii.  16). — Christendom  is  here  represented 
as  the  true  spiritual  temple  of  God  (comp.  iv.  17;  1  Cor.  iii.  16 
sq.;  2  Cor.  vi.  16  ;  Heb.  iii.  6  ;  2  Thess.  ii.  4  ;  1  Tim.  iii.  15).  But 
as  a  spiritual  temple,  Christendom  serves  for  the  execution  of 
the  sacred  priestly  office  of  bringing  spiritual  sacrifice.  The 
writer  is  not  speaking  here  simply  of  the  universal  priesthood  of 
the  Christians.  Each  individual  Christian  is  indeed  a  living  stone 
in  the  temple  of  God ;  but  only  as  a  community,  or  collectively, 
do  they  exercise  the  office  of  priest.  Of  any  hierarchy  over  the 
community  there  is  not  a  word. 

6.  The  passage  from  Is.  xxviii.  16  is  here  amalgamated  with 
Is.  viii.  14,  just  in  the  same  way  as  it  had  already  been  in  Rom. 
ix.  33. 

7.  Eead,  "  Yours,  then,  who  believe,  is  the  honour ;  but  to 
them  that  disbelieve,"  &c. — "  The  honour,"  in  opposition  to  the 
"  shame,"  of  the  unbelievers.  [The  point  of  the  quotation  is 
partly  lost  by  calling  the  stone  "precious,"  and  then  rendering 
this  verse,  "yours  is  the  Jionour."  The  two  Greek  words  are 
similar.  The  stone  has  been  rejected  by  men,  but  is  precious  or 
IwnouraUe  in  the  sight  of  God.  There  is  shame  and  honour 
belonging  to  it.  The  honour  is  the  share  of  the  believers,  the 
shame  is  the  share  of  the  unbelievers.] 

8.  Destination  of  the  unbelievers  to  disobedience  or  to  stum- 
bling. In  all  this  there  is  a  predestination,  just  as  in  the  case 
of  faith  which  appears  (i.  5)  as  purely  the  work  of  God. 

9.  \^A  p)eculiar 2^eoplc :  i.e.  a  people  who  are  God's  own  special 
possession.] — Praises  should  be  "excellence." — What  has  been 
said  of  the  Jewish  nation  as  the  ancient  people  of  God  (Is.  xliii. 
20  sq.;  Exod.  xix.  6),  is  here  transferred  to  Gentile  Christendom. 

10.  Gentile  Christendom  depicted  after  Hos.  ii.  23. 

ii.  11 — 14.  The  right  attitude  toward  the  heathen  and  heathen 

rulers. 

11.  As  strangers  and  'pilgrims  on  the  earth,  and  therefore 


ii.  11 — iii.  G]  I.  PETER.  173 

mindful  of  the  heavenly  calling. — From  fiesJily  lusts,  which  war 
against  the  soul :  comp.  Rom.  vii.  23  ;  James  iv.  1. 

12.  Conversation  :  "  conduct." —  Whereas  should  be  "  in  the 
matter  in  which." — Evil  reports  among  the  heathen  against  the 
Christians  as  evil-doers,  who  were  accused  of  blasphemy,  incest, 
cannibalism.  The  heathen  must  be  brought  to  a  different  view 
by  seeing  for  themselves  the  Christian  conduct,  so  that  finally, 
in  the  day  of  visitation,  they  may  praise  God  on  account  of  the 
beautiful  deeds  of  the  Christians  (comp.  v.  6 ;  Luke  xix.  44). 
This  refers  to  Matt.  v.  16,  but  here  it  is  not  until  the  day  of 
God's  (gracious)  visitation  that  the  heathen  will  praise  God  on 
account  of  the  beautiful  deeds  of  the  Christians. 

13.  The  exhortation  to  obedience  to  the  authorities  is  evidently 
after  Eom.  xiii.  1  sq.,  even  to  the  very  expressions  used.  The 
king,  both  here  and  in  ver.  17,  is  the  Eomau  emperor. 

ii.  15 — 17.  A  loorcl  to  tlwse  who  are  free. 
17.  Tlie  brotherhood,  both  here  and  in  v.  9,  is  Christendom. — 
[The  king :  see  note  on  ver,  13.] 

ii.  18 — 25.  A  tvord  to  the  slaves. 

21.   Us  ...  .  us  should  be  "  you  ....  you." 

22 — 24.  The  type  of  the  sufferings  of  the  Messiah  is  worked 
out  after  Is.  liii.  9,  with  reference  to  Matt,  xxvii.  27 — 31,  39 — 50, 
and  to  the  circumstances  of  the  readers,  the  expiation  of  sins 
after  Is.  liii.  5 ;  Deut.  xxi.  23,  applied  as  in  Col.  ii.  14. 

23.  Himself:  "it." 

24.  Read,  "  Who  himself  carried  up  our  sins  in  his  body  on 
to  the  tree." 

25.  Bishop:  properly,  "overseer." 

iii.  1 — 7.  Married  life. 

[1.  After  hushands,  read,  "  that  even  if  any  obey  not  the  word, 
they  may  without  the  word,"  &c. — Conversation  should  be  "  con- 
duct," both  here  and  in  ver.  2.] 

4.  Read,  "  But  the  hidden  man  of  the  heart,  in  the  incorrup- 
tible nature  of  the  meek  and  quiet  spirit  which  is  very  precious 
in  the  sight  of  God." 

6.  Calling  him  lord :  see  Gen.  xviii.  12. — And  arc  not  afraid 
vnth  any  amazement  should  be  "  and  do  not  fear  any  terror." 


174  /.  PETER.  [iii.  6—20 

The  Christian  women,  even  in  the  case  of  mixed  marriages,  must 
fearlessly  acknowledge  their  Christianity. 

7.  Bead,  "  In  the  same  manner,  ye  men,,  deal  reasonably  (lit. 
"dwell  in  reason")  with  that  which  is  womanly,  as  with  the 
weaker  vessel,  giving  them  honour  as  joint-heirs  of  the  grace  of 
life,"  &c. —  Vessel :  comp.  1  Thess.  iv.  4. — "  Giving  them  honour 
as  joint  heirs  of  the  grace  of  life,  in  order  that  your  prayers  may 
not  be  hindered."  If  the  women  are  not  esteemed  as  Christian 
sisters,  the  prayers  of  the  Christian  husbands  will  not  be  heard, 
for  on  Christian  ground  the  women  stand  on  an  equality  with 
the  men. 

iii.  8 — 12.  The  disposition  which  should  unite  in  itself  all  the  indi- 
vidual virtues  together. 
10—12.  From  Psalm  xxxiv.  12—16. 

iii.  13 — iv.  6.  Steadfast  confession  of  Christ  and  of  the  holiness  of 
Christianity  in  times  of  persecution. 

13.  If  ye  he  follovjers  of  should  be  "if  ye  be  zealous  for  [lit. 
"  are  become  zealots  of"]  that  which  is  good." 

14.  Suffering  for  righteousness'  sake,  an  expression  which  has 
already  been  used  in  Matt.  v.  10  of  the  persecutions  of  the  Chris- 
tians.— [But  and  if  ye  suffer :  i.  e.  "  And  if,  after  all,  ye  actually 
do  suffer."] 

15.  Bead,  "  But  sanctify  the  Lord  Christ  [or  "  sanctify  Christ 
as  Lord"]  in  your  hearts.  And  be  ready  at  all  times  to  give  an 
answer  to  every  one  that  demandeth  an  account  of  the  hope 
that  is  in  you,  but  with  meekness  and  fear,". — Sanctify  the  Lord 
Christ:  i.e.  hold  him  holy. 

16.  Whereas  should  be  "in  that  in  which." — [Conversation 
should  be  "  conduct."] 

18.  That  Christ  suffered  once  is  after  Heb.  ix.  27,  28.—  TJie 
just  for  the  unjust :  comp.  Eom.  v.  6. — [Put  to  death,  &c.,  refers 
to  Christ.] 

19,  20.  The  spirits  in  prison,  disobedient  in  the  days  of  Noah, 
to  whom  Christ  preached  after  his  death,  are  departed  spirits 
(comp.  Heb.  xii.  23).  The  spirits  in  the  under-world  had  mani- 
fested disobedience  before  the  judgment  of  the  flood,  after  which 
a  second  judgment  is  to  come  (comp.  iv.  17).  In  Noah's  ark 
were  eight  souls,  viz.  Noah  and  his  three  sons,  together  with 


iii.  20— iv.  8]  /.  PETER.  175 

their  wives,  who  were  saved  by  water  from  the  corrupt  world. 
The  water  of  the  flood  is  strictly  the  means  of  their  deliverance, 
of  which  the  water  of  baptism  is  an  antitype. —  When  once,  &c., 
should  be  "  when  the  long-suffering  of  God  was  waiting,"  &c. 

21.  Eead :  "  The  antitype  of  which,  even  baptism,  doth  now 
also  save  you,"  &c. — Ansiver :  "covenant"  [lit.  "question"]. — 
Baptism  which  brings  salvation  is  opposed  to  the  Jewish  wash- 
ings, which  are  merely  a  putting  away  of  uncleanness  of  the 
flesh.  The  baptismal  confession,  with  question  and  answer,  is  a 
vow  to  God.  Baptism,  as  immersion,  is  symbolic  of  the  death 
and  burial  of  Christ,  and  delivers  through  the  resurrection  of 
Christ,  because  it  leads  to  the  new  life  in  correspondence  with 
the  resurrection  of  Christ  (i.  3  ;  comp.  Rom.  vi.  5). 

22.  Christ  sitting  at  the  right  hand  of  God  is  Lord  over  all 
angels  and  powers. 

iv.  1.  Suffering  in  the  flesh,  whereby  not  the  earthly  life  but 
sins  cease,  indicates  a  union  with  the  suffering  of  Christ  (2  Cor. 
V.  14). — In  the  flesh  should  be  "according  to  the  flesh." — Hath 
ceased:  i.e.  "hath  rest  from  sin." 

2.  Read,  "That  the  remaining  time  in  the  flesh  he  may  no 
longer  live  to  the  lusts  of  men,  but  to  the  will  of  God." 

4.  Read,  "  Wherein  they  think  it  strange  that  ye  do  not,  blas- 
pheming, run  with  them  into  the  same  excess  of  profligacy." 

6.  The  gospel  was  preached  to  the  dead  by  Christ  when  he 
descended  into  hell,  in  order  that,  having  been  judged  in  human 
fashion,  in  death  as  the  wages  of  sin  (comp.  Rom,  v.  12)  they 
might  still,  if  they  would  turn  in  belief  to  the  gospel,  live  in  the 
spirit  as  God  lives  and  will  have  us  live. — According  to  men  : 
i.e.  after  human  fashion. — Accordhig  to  God:  i.e.  after  divine 
fashion. 

iv.  7 — 19,  The  preceding  exhortation  is  strengthened  hy  reference, 
to  the  fact  that  the  judgment  is  near  at  hand. 

7.  Be  ye  therefore  sober,  &c, :  "  be  ye  therefore  temperate  and 
be  sober  [the  word  is  also  used  figuratively  = "  be  wary,  watch- 
ful"] unto  prayer." 

8.  [Read,  "And  above  all  things  have  fervent  love  among 
yourselves,  for  love  covereth  a  multitude  of  sins,"]—  From  Prov. 
X.  12,  understood  as  in  James  v.  20. 


176  I.  PETER.  [iv.  9 — V.  3 

9.  Grudging  should  be  "  murmuring." 

10.  Comp.  Eom.  xii.  6  sqq. ;  1  Cor.  xii.  4  sqq. ;  1  Cor.  iv.  1. 

11.  To  whom  he  praise,  &c.,  should  be  "  whose  is  praise,"  &c. 

12.  [Eead,  "Beloved,  be  not  astonished  by  the  fire  among 
you,  which  is  for  a  trial  for  you,  as  though  some  strange  thing 
had  happened  to  you."] — The  fire  is  the  purifying  fire  of  tribula- 
tion in  the  time  of  persecution. 

13.  Eead,  "  But  in  proportion  as  ye  share  in  the  sufferings  of 
Christ,  rejoice." — \_That  when,  &c. :  lit,  "that  in  the  revelation  of 
his  glory,  rejoicing  ye  may  be  glad."] 

14.  Eead,  "  If  ye  be  reproached  in  the  name  of  Christ,  blessed 
are  ye ;  for  the  spirit  of  glory  and  of  power,  and  the  spirit  of 
God  resteth  upon  you."  The  rest  of  the  verse  should  be  omitted, 
— The  spirit  of  glory  and  of  power,  which  together  with  the 
spirit  of  God  resteth  upon  the  despised  Christians,  will  be  the 
Holy  Spirit  (comp.  Matt.  v.  10,  11). 

15.  Busyhocly  in  other  meri's  matters :  a  spy,  sycophant.  Trajan 
had  promulgated  severe  laws  against  informers,  so  that  this  verse 
confirms  the  supposition  that  this  Epistle  was  written  during 
his  reign. 

16.  Bui  let  him,  &c.,  should  be  "but  let  him  praise  God  in 
this  name." 

17.  The  judgment  of  God  begins  with  the  house  of  God,  i.e. 
with  Christendom,  and  ends  terribly  with  the  unbelievers. 

19.  Eead,  "  Wherefore  let  even  them  that  suffer  according  to 
the  will  of  God,"  &c.  [The  best  MSS.  continue,  "  commit  their 
souls  in  well-doing  to  a  faithful  Creator."] 

V.  1 — 11.  Exhortations  in  regard  to  the  life  of  the  community. 

1.  It  is  probable  that  the  younger  (ver.  5)  are  contrasted  with 
the  ciders  here.  Still  what  is  meant  here  is  not  simply  those 
who  are  older  in  years,  but  the  presidents  of  the  community, 
with  whom  the  apostle  ranks  himself  as  a  fellow-elder. 

2.  Taking  the  oversight :  An  allusion  to  the  office  of  bishop  as 
overseer  [two  of  the  oldest  MSS.  omit  this]. — [  Willingly :  some 
ancient  MSS.  add,  "  according  to  God." — Not  for  filthy  lucre :  pro- 
bably better,  "  not  being  sordidly  desirous  of  gain ;"  comp.  1  Tim, 
iii.  8.] 

3.  GocVs  heritage  should  be  "  the  lots." — The  of&cers  of  the 


V.  3—14]  7.   PETER.  177 

community  were  elected  among  the  Christians,  as  well  as  among 
others,  by  lot  (Acts  i.  26),  whence  the  name  clcrus  (lot)  for  the 
clergy  [hence  the  English  words  clerk,  clergy,  &c.].  What  is 
meant  here,  however,  is  not  the  officers,  but  the  whole  commu- 
nity, spoken  of  like  the  ancient  community  of  God  to  which  the 
promised  land  was  divided  by  lots  (comp.  Num.  xxvi.  55  ;  Josh, 
xiv.  2,  xix.  51). 

4.  The  chief  Shepherd,  whose  under-shepherds  the  elders  are 
(comp.  Heb.  xiii.  20). — [A  crown,  &c. :  strictly,  "  the  imperishable 
(Gr.  "  amaranthine")  crown  of  glory."] 

5.  Ye  younger :  This,  like  the  words  the  elders  in  ver.  1,  is  not 
to  be  understood  to  refer  simply  to  the  age  of  those  addressed. 
The  expression  already  practically  answers  pretty  nearly  to  the 
term  "  laity." — For  God  resisteth  the  proud  and  giveth  grace  to  the 
hicmhle :  from  Prov.  iii.  34,  after  James  iv.  6. 

7.  After  Ps.  Iv.  22. 

10.  Us  should  be  "  you." — Make  you  perfect,  &c. :  "  will  make 
you  perfect,  will  stablish,  strengthen,  settle  you." 

V.  12,  13.  Personal. 

12.  Silvanus,  or  Silas,  appears  elsewhere  as  a  companion  of 
Paul. 

13.  The  church  that  is  at  Babylon  elected  together  toith  you :  lit. 
"  The  chosen  with  you  at  Babylon,"  i.  e.  the  Christian  community 
in  Eome.  As  the  imperial  heathen  city  of  the  time,  Eome  bears 
the  name  of  Babylon  as  early  as  the  date  of  the  Apocalypse 
(Ptev.  xiv.  8,  xvi.  19,  xvii.  5,  xviii.  2, 10,  21). — Marcus  [Mark]  not 
literally  the  son  of  Peter,  but  his  spiritual  son  (comp.  1  Cor. 
iv.  17;  Philem.  10). 

V.  14.  Farewell  salutation. 


VOL.  III.  N 


THE    SECOND   EPISTLE    OF   PETEE. 


The  Second  Epistle  of  Peter  assumes  the  existence  of  the 
first  (iii.  1),  and  purports  to  have  been  written  by  the  apostle  in 
view  of  approaching  death  (i.  14,  15).  It  is  thrown  into  the 
form  of  a  written  memorial  which  the  apostle  desires  to  leave 
to  the  believers  (i.  12  sq.);  but  the  real  occasion  which  gives 
rise  to  it  is  the  appearance  of  false  doctrines  and  doubts.  The 
false  doctrine  is  the  free-thinking  Gnosticism,  as  in  the  Epistle 
of  Jude,  which  is  here  transcribed  (ch.  ii.),  with  the  omission 
of  the  quotations  from  the  apocryphal  writings,  and  with  some 
additions.  This  Gnosticism  already  appears  here  as  a  declared 
heresy  (ii.  1).  The  exclusion  of  it,  which  was  aimed  at  in  the 
Epistle  of  Jude,  is  here  essentially  completed  (notwithstanding 
what  is  said  in  ii.  1.3).  The  doubts  we  have  mentioned  refer  to 
the  expectation  of  the  return  of  Christ,  the  ground  of  which 
appeared  to  be  failing  through  long  delay.  Both  these  pheno- 
mena point  to  the  very  latest  age  of  New  Testament  literature. 
It  is  assumed,  moreover,  that  the  Epistles  of  Paul  have  already 
been  collected ;  and  they  are  regarded  as  holy  scripture  (iii.  15, 
16).  The  composition  of  this  Epistle  by  the  apostle  Peter  himself 
is  out  of  the  question.  We  must  look  rather  to  the  second  half 
of  the  second  century.  It  is  probable  that  it  was  written  by  a 
Eoman  Christian. 

It  is  not  till  the  third  century  that  we  find  the  first  trace  of 
any  knowledge  of  this  Epistle,  and  even  as  late  as  the  beginning 
of  the  fifth  century  the  majority  rejected  it. 

In  regard  to  the  attitude  of  the  writer,  it  may  be  said  that  he 


THE  SECOND   EPISTLE  OF  PETEB.  179 

belongs  to  the  period  of  the  reconstruction  of  the  Catholic  Church. 
Of  the  attitude  of  that  section  of  the  church  to  which  the  actual 
Peter  belonged,  scarcely  anything  remains.  In  place  of  the 
historical  opposition  of  Peter  to  Paul,  we  find  a  brotherly  recog- 
nition of  Paul  and  his  Epistles  (iii.  15,  16).  The  writer  bases 
the  true  faith  first  of  all  upon  prophetic  utterance  as  a  pure 
inspiration  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  tlien,  in  addition,  upon  his 
own  testimony  as  an  eye-witness  (i.  16 — 21).  He  appears  as 
the  representative  of  this  true  faith  first  against  the  free-thinking 
Gnosticism,  which  he  speaks  of  as  worse  than  pure  heathenism 
(ii.  20,  21),  and  then  against  those  who  doubt  as  to  the  return 
of  Christ,  to  whom  he  declares  that  in  the  sight  of  God  a  thousand 
years  are  as  one  day,  and  that  the  long-suffering  of  God,  who 
desires  to  admit  all  to  the  possibility  of  repentance,  is  the  cause 
of  the  delay  (iii.  8,  9).  The  writer  then  sets  forth  his  peculiar 
doctrine  of  the  destruction  of  the  world  by  fire  (iii.  10,  12). 
This  Epistle  is  mainly  instructive  as  a  document  of  the  forma- 
tion of  the  Catholic  Church. 

After  the  address  to  all  fellow-believers  (i.  1 — 4),  and  a  general 
exhortation  (i.  5 — 11),  Peter  sets  forth  the  motive  which  he  has 
for  writing,  introducing  himself  as  an  eye-witness  of  Jesus,  and 
appealing  further  to  divinely  inspired  prophecy  (i.  12 — 21). 
He  then  turns  to  the  attack  upon  the  (Gnostic)  false  teachers, 
whom  he  speaks  of  first  as  if  he  were  foretelling  what  is  to  come, 
and  afterwards  as  though  they  were  already  present.  In  this 
attack  he  expresses  all  his  deepest  horror  (ch.  ii.).  Then  he 
answers  the  doubts  of  his  contemporaries  as  to  the  return  of 
Christ  by  an  appeal  to  the  divine  standard  of  time,  and  the 
delay  of  divine  long-suffering  (iii.  1  —10).  The  mention  of  the 
impending  destruction  of  the  world  by  fire,  leads  to  the  final 
exhortation  to  make  preparation  for  the  day  of  the  Lord.  In 
support  of  this  the  writer  finally  appeals  to  Paul  and  his  Epistles, 
referring  at  the  same  time  to  misunderstandings  of  the  latter 
(iii.  11 — 16).  The  conclusion  of  the  Epistle  touches  once  more 
upon  the  notorious  perversions  of  the  age  (iii.  17,  18). 

N  2 


THE  SECOND  EPISTLE  OF  PETEE. 

i.  1 — 4  The  address  to  all  felloiv-helievers. 

1.  The  righteousness,  &c.,  should  be  "  the  righteousness  of  our 
God  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ." — The  deity  of  Christ  is  here 
assumed  (comp.  Tit.  ii.  13). 

3,  4.  Eead,  "  Seeing  that  his  divine  power  hath  given  unto  us 
all  tilings  that  serve  unto  life  and  godliness  by  his  own  glory 
and  virtue,  by  which  have  been  given  unto  us  precious  and  very 
great  promises  (namely),  that  ye  by  these  should  be  made  par- 
takers of  the  divine  nature,  if  ye  flee  from  the  worldly  destruc- 
tion of  desire"  [lit.  "having  fled  away  (or  escaped)  from  the 
destruction  in  the  world  in  desire"]. 

i.  5 — 11.  General  exhortation  to  religious  and  moral  excellence. 
5.  And  beside  this:  "wherefore." 

7.  "And  to  godliness  brotherly  love,  and  to  brotherly  love 
universal  love."  This  universal  love  extends  still  further  than 
the  brotherly  love. 

8.  In  the  knowledge  should  be  "  unto  the  knowledge." 

9.  Cannot  see  afar  off  should  be  "  is  short-sighted." — Such  an 
one  is  blind  to  the  higher  light,  and  his  power  of  vision  is  only 
sufficient  for  that  which  is  near  at  hand,  for  earthly  things. 

i.  12—21. 

The  ivriters  motive  in  writing,  and  the  importance  vjhieh  attaches 
to  him  as  an  eye-witness  of  Jesus,  honoured  with  special  divine 
inspiration. 

13.  In  this  tahernacle :  i.e.  the  tabernacle  of  the  body  (comp. 
2  Cor.  V.  1).  In  ver.  14  this  metaphor  is  confused  with  that  of 
clothing. 

14.  This  revelation  of  Christ  concerning  the  impending  end 
of  Peter's  life  may  be  found  in  John  xxi.  18,  19. 

16 — 18.  Eeference  to  the  narrative  of  the  transfiguration, 
Matt.  xvii.  1  sq. 


i.  19 — ii.  5]  II.  PETER.  181 

19.  Eead,  "We  have  a  still  surer  prophetic  word." — Still 
firmer  than  the  figure  of  the  transfiguration,  which  merely  indi- 
cates the  second  coming  of  Christ,  is  the  prophetic  word  of  the 
final  appearance  of  Christ,  which  foretells  its  complete  fulfil- 
ment. It  is  an  apocryphal  book  of  the  Old  Testament  that  is 
here  quoted  (2  Esdras  xii.  42,  "and  as  a  lamp  in  a  dark  place"). 
The  dark  place  signifies  the  darkness  in  the  hearts  of  the  Chris- 
tians, in  which  the  full  light  does  not  shine  until  the  coming  of 
Christ  (comp.  Eph.  v.  14). 

20.  No  prophecy  of  scripture  is  a  matter  of  one's  own  inter- 
pretation, i.  e.  of  human  invention.  The  prophets  themselves  did 
not  know  to  what  their  prophecies  referred.  So  that  it  is  only 
by  divine  enlightenment  that  the  interpretation  is  made  possible. 

21.  "For  prophecy  was  never  produced  by  the  will  of  man," 
&c.     Prophecy  is  a  pure  inspiration  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 

ii.  Against  false  teacJiers. 

Here  we  have  almost  the  whole  Epistle  of  Jude  transcribed, 
with  the  exception  of  the  quotations  from  two  apocryphal  books, 
viz.  the  Assumption  of  Moses  and  the  Book  of  Enoch,  and  with 
some  additions. 

[1.  Daimuible  heresies :  lit.  "  heresies  [or  "  sects"]  of  destruc- 
tion ;"  the  same  word  as  "destruction"  at  the  end  of  the  verse.] 

2.  Eead,  "  And  many  shall  imitate  their  debaucheries,"  &c. 

3.  Read,  "  And  in  avarice,  with  words  of  their  own  imagina- 
tion, they  will  seek  to  make  a  profit  out  of  you,  and  their  judg- 
ment for  a  long  time  past  delayeth  not,  and  their  destruction 
slumbereth  not." — The  Gnostic  false  teachers  lectured  for  money 
(comp.  ver.  14). 

4.  [But  cast  them  doivn,  &c. :  lit.  "  but  having  sent  them  to 
Tartarus  in  chains  (or,  as  some  of  the  oldest  MSS.  read,  "in 
caves")  of  nether  gloom,  delivered  them  to  be  reserved  unto 
judgment."] — On  the  sinful  angels,  comp.  Jude,  ver.  6. 

5.  Noah,  the  eighth  person :  comp.  Gen.  vii.  13.  Noah  was  one 
of  the  eight  who  were  saved  in  the  deluge  (comp.  1  Pet.  iii.  10). 
The  old  world  is  the  world  before  the  deluge.  [Noah  .  .  .  .  a 
preacher  [lit.  herald]  of  righteousness :  There  is  no  record  in  the 
Old  Testament  of  any  saying  of  Noah's,  except  the  cursing  of 
Canaan  and  blessing  of  Shem  (Gen.  ix.  25  sq.).     The  reference 


182  II.  PETER.  [ii.  5 — 19 

here  seems  to  be  to  Gen.  vii.  1,  Noah  being  regarded  as  a  type, 
and  so,  unconsciously,  a  herald,  of  the  righteousness  to  come.] 

[7.  Filthy  conversation :  better,  "  licentious  conduct."] 

8.  Tlmt  righteous  man  should  be  "  the  rigliteous  man." — Dwell- 
ing among  them  in  seeing  and  hearing :  i.  e.  While  he  dwelt  among 
them,  so  that  he  could  not  help  seeing  and  hearing  their  wicked- 
ness. 

[9.   Unjust:  better,  "unrighteous."] 

10,  11.  Pres^imptuous,  &c.,  should  be  "bold,  presumptuous; 
they  tremble  not  to  blaspheme  against  glories ;  whereas  angels, 
which  are  greater  in  power  and  might,  pronounce  not  a  blas- 
phemous judgment  against  them  before  the  Lord." — Contempt 
of  dominion  and  blasphemy  of  glories,  as  in  Jude,  ver.  8.  The 
description  of  the  false  teachers  here  passes  from  the  future  to 
the  present.  The  actual  time  of  the  composition  of  the  Epistle 
appears. — With  ver.  11  comp.  Jude,  ver.  9. 

12.  [Lit.  "  But  these,  as  unreasoning  animals,  born  naturally 
to  be  taken  and  destroyed,  blaspheming  in  the  things  that  they 
know  not,  shall  also  be  destroyed  in  their  destruction,  receiving 
the  wages  of  unrighteousness  (or,  as  some  old  MSS.  read,  "  suffer- 
ing wrong  as  the  wages  of  unrighteousness"),  counting  the  day's 
revel  pleasure  (i.e.,  as  some  take  it,  "finding  their  pleasure  in 
self-indulgence,  which  lasts  but  for  a  day,"  or,  as  A.V.  has  it, 
"counting  it  pleasure  to  riot  in  the  day-time").] — S-pots  are  they, 
&c.,  should  be,  "  They  are  blots  and  monsters  who  riot  in  their 
love-feasts  when  they  feast  with  you."  There  is,  however,  ano- 
ther reading :  "  in  their  deceit,"  for  "  in  their  love-feasts,"  i.e.  with 
that  which  they  have  gained  by  deceit  (comp.  Jude  12). 

[14.  Cursed  children :  lit.  "  children  of  a  curse."] 

15,  16.  Comp.  Num.  xxii.  5  sqq. ;  Jude  11. 

17.  Mist  should  be  "  gloom"  [strictly,  "  the  gloom  of  the  lower 
world,"  the  same  word  that  is  rendered  "  nether  gloom"  in  the 
note  on  ver.  4]. 

18.  They  allure,  &c.,  should  be  "  they  allure  in  lusts  of  the 
flesh  through  debaucheries  those  who  are  scarcely  escaping  from 
those  who  walk  in  error." — Those  who  are  scarcely  escaping  from 
those  who  walk  in  error,  are  weak  Christians  who  are  almost 
carried  away  by  the  unbelieving  Gentiles  (comp.  ver.  20). 

[19.  Servants :  strictly,  "  slaves."] 


ii.  20— iii.  11]  //.  peter.  183 

20.  "  The  last  things  are  worse  with  them  than  the  first :"  an 
echo  of  Matt.  xii.  45 ;  Luke  xi.  26. 
22.  Comp.  Prov.  xxvi.  11. 

iii.  1 — 10.  Confutation  of  the  doubts  concerning  the  return  of 

Christ. 

2.  The  prophets  are  here  added  to  the  words  of  Jude,  ver.  17. 
— The  commandment,  &c.,  should  be  "  the  commandment  of  your 
apostles,"  &c. — [The  words  "  of  the  Lord  and  Saviour"  depend 
upon  "  commandments/'  not  upon  "  apostles."] 

5.  Comp.  Gen.  i.  2,  9. — The  earth  standing  out  of  the  loater 
and  in  the  water  should  be  "  the  earth  formed  out  of  water  and 
through  water." 

7.  By  the  same  word:  "by  his  word"  [the  MSS.  vary]. — A 
destruction  of  the  world  by  fire  (comp.  vv.  10 — 13)  was  not 
taught  in  the  Old  Testament,  nor  is  it  found  elsewhere  in  the 
New  Testament.  The  Stoic  philosophers  held  the  doctrine  of  a 
destruction  of  the  world  by  fire  to  be  repeated  from  time  to  time. 
A  burning  of  tlie  world  once  for  all  is  spoken  of  in  the  Jewish 
Sibylline  prophecies  about  140  B.C.,  and  about  79  A.D.  There 
were  Gnostics  also,  as,  for  example,  the  Valentinians,  who  ex- 
pected that  the  material  world  would  finally  perish  by  fire, 
following  our  Second  Epistle  of  Peter,  this  idea  became  more 
and  more  generally  accepted  among  Christians. 

8.  Contrast  between  divine  and  human  reckoning  of  time, 
after  Ps.  xc.  4. 

9.  To  US-ward  should  be  "  on  your  account." 

10.  The  day  of  the  Lord  comes  as  a  thief  in  the  night  (comp. 
1  Thess.  V.  2).  The  elements  which  are  to  be  dissolved  with 
heat  (comp  iii.  17)  are  not  what  are  now  commonly  known  as 
the  four  elements,  but  the  heavenly  powers  regarded  as  animated, 
viz.  sun,  moon  and  stars  as  the  elements  of  the  universe  (comp. 
Gal.  iv.  3,  9  ;  Col.  ii.  8,  20). — [The  words  in  the  night  are  omitted 
in  three  of  the  best  MSS.  Probably  they  have  simply  been 
added  here  from  1  Thess.  v.  2.] 

iii.  11 — 18.  Exhortation  to  preparation  for  the  day  of  the  Lord. 

Conclusion. 
iii.  11—16. 
Holy  conduct  is  the  first  sign  of  preparation. 


184  .  II.  PETER.  [iii.  11 — 18 

11.  Conversation:  "Conduct." 

12.  Eead,  "  Looking  for  and  hastening  the  coming  of  the  day 
of  the  Lord,  on  account  of  which,"  &c. — It  is  necessary  not  only 
to  hold  fast  to  the  expectation  of  the  coming  of  the  Lord,  concern- 
ing which  doubts  were  already  arising  (iii.  4),  but  also  to  hasten 
it  by  bringing  oneself  into  the  state  which  God  in  his  long- 
suffering  is  waiting  for  (comp.  iii.  9).  That  this  is  the  writer's 
meaning  is  clear  from  iii.  14. 

13.  Nevertheless :  "but." — His  promise  should  be  "his  pro- 
mises."— The  promises  of  a  new  heaven  and  a  new  earth  are 
found  in  Is.  Ixv.  17,  Ixvi.  22 ;  Eev.  xxi.  1  sq.  Eighteousness 
dwells  in  those  who  endure  piously. 

15.  This  reference  to  one  of  Paul's  writings  is  probably  to 
2  Thess.  ii.  1  sq. 

16.  The  perversion  of  that  which  is  hard  to  understand  in 
Paul  was  probably  not  limited  simply  to  the  doctrine  of  the 
return  of  Christ,  but  extended  to  the  whole  opposition  to  the 
primitive  apostolic  Christianity,  which  the  writer  refers  to  a 
false  interpretation  of  the  Epistles  of  Paul — and  also  of  the  other 
seriptures.  The  Epistles  of  Paul  are  already  regarded  as  holy 
scripture. 

iii.  17,  18. 
The  second  sign  of  readiness  is  freedom  from  errors  and  a 
mature  recognition  of  Christ  as  the  Saviour. 
[18.  For  ever :  lit.  "  to  the  day  of  eternity."] 


THE   FIEST   EPISTLE    OF   JOHN. 


This  Epistle  is  mentioned  by  Clement  of  Alexandria  (who 
died  between  211  and  220  A.D.)  as  a  "  Catholic,"  i.e.  "general," 
Epistle,  and  is  further  included  in  the  series  of  Catholic  Epistles. 
The  ancient  church  judged  rightly  in  thus  regarding  it  not  as  a 
letter  in  the  ordinary  sense,  but  as  a  writing  which,  while  in 
ejDistolary  form,  was  really  addressed  to  the  whole  church.  The 
authorship  of  the  Epistle  was  not  doubted,  simply  because  its 
contents  corresponded  to  a  want  of  the  church.  That  which  was 
Catholic  seemed  necessarily  to  be  Apostolic.  The  result,  how- 
ever, of  scientific  methods  of  inquiry  has  been  to  show  that  the 
apostolic  origin  of  the  Epistle  cannot  be  maintained.  The  Epistle 
was  not  mentioned  and  used,  or  at  any  rate  there  is  no  sure  evi- 
dence of  its  being  mentioned  and  used,  until  towards  the  end  of 
the  second  century.  The  external  evidence  regarding  it  is  just 
the  same  as  in  the  case  of  the  Fourth  Gospel.  More  than  this, 
the  question  generally  as  to  the  origin  of  the  Epistle  is  most 
closely  intertwined  with  that  of  the  origin  of  the  Gospel.  Not 
only  the  general  ideas  and  the  theological  position,  but  even  the 
expression  and  style  of  the  two  are  so  very  much  alike,  that  we 
are  compelled  to  refer  both  to  the  same  writer.  The  supposition 
of  the  apostolic  origin  of  the  First  Epistle  falls  to  the  ground 
along  with  the  theory  of  the  apostolic  origin  of  the  Fourth  Gospel, 
and  moreover  the  Epistle  itself  refers  to  the  tradition  of  the  apos- 
tles in  a  way  which  cannot  belong  to- the  apostolic  age  (ii.  24). 

The  Epistle  has  been  regarded  as  a  recommendation  of  the 
Fourth  Gospel  intended  to  accompany  it,  or  a  second  part  of  the 


186  TBE  FIRST  EPISTLE  OF  JOHN. 

Gospel,  the  practical  or  polemical  part,  which  was  at  first  united 
with  the  Gospel  and  afterwards  separated  from  it.  Of  this,  how- 
ever, there  is  no  proof.  We  must  rest  content  with  the  plain 
fact  that  the  writer,  in  view  of  setting  forth  the  ecclesiastical 
conception  which  he  represents,  was  not  satisfied  to  restrict  him- 
self to  the  form  of  the  gospel  narrative,  and  chose  to  make  use 
of  the  epistolary  form  also  for  his  purpose.  That  the  Epistle  is 
later  than  the  Gospel  is  very  probable ;  partly  because  the  Epistle 
evidently  purports  to  have  been  written  by  an  apostle,  and  yet 
gives  no  hint  as  to  his  identity,  but  leaves  the  reader  to  infer  it 
from  the  connection  of  the  Epistle  with  the  Eourth  Gospel ;  and 
partly  from  allusions  to  the  Gospel,  in  which  it  is  assumed  that 
it  has  already  become  publicly  known  (comp.  i.  1 — 3  with  John 
i.  1 — 14;  i.  4  with  John  xv.  11 ;  ii.  27  with  John  xiv.  26,  &c.). 
It  must  be  acknowledged,  however,  that  some  have  regarded  the 
Epistle  as  the  earlier  writing,  especially  on  the  ground  that  we 
find  mention  in  it  of  the  "  last  day"  (ii.  18,  28,  iii.  2,  iv.  3),  while 
it  is  said  that  the  Gospel  is  silent  in  regard  to  this,  and  there- 
fore belongs  to  a  period  when  the  hope  of  the  return  of  the  Lord 
was  already  falling  more  into  decay.  But  while  it  is  quite 
certain  that  the  withdrawal  of  this  hope  in  the  Gospel  is  a  sign 
of  its  late  origin,  the  hope  itself  does  not  seem  even  there  to  have 
been  entirely  surrendered  (comp.  John  v,  28,  29). 

If  it  be  asked  what  special  occasion  moved  the  author  of  the 
Epistle  to  write  it,  we  may  find  an  answer  in  the  dangerous 
growth  of  the  Gnostic  sects  (see  Introduction  to  the  Gospel, 
Vol.  I.  pp.  197  sq.).  In  the  commentary  on  the  Epistle,  it  will 
be  shown  that  the  references  to  them,  and  especially  to  their 
view  of  the  personality  of  Jesus,  are  much  more  extensive  than 
is  usually  supposed  (comp.  especially  notes  on  v.  13 — 21).  There 
is  no  trace  in  the  Epistle  of  any  contest  with  Jews  and  Jewish 
Christians.  We  might  rather  suppose  that  the  Jews,  with  their 
denial  of  the  divine  sonship  of  Jesus  in  the  fourth  Gospel,  are 
intended  to  take  the  place  of  the  Gnostics,  whom  the  writer 
could  scarcely  transpose  to  the  time  of  Jesus. 


THE  FIRST  EPISTLE  OF  JOHN.  187 

An  inscription  of  the  Epistle  "  To  the  Parthians,"  which  arose 
from  an  error,  was  for  a  long  time  accepted  as  reliable,  and  the 
Epistle  was  consequently  taken  to  have  been  addressed  to  the 
Jewish  Christians  among  the  Parthians.  But  as  the  writing 
itself  is  only  thrown  loosely  into  epistolary  form,  and  all  its 
utterances  are  in  the  tone  of  the  fatherly  appeal  of  the  aged  apostle 
under  whose  authority  tlie  writer  shelters  himself,  we  cannot 
properly  look  for  any  address  at  all.  The  Epistle  is  in  fact 
addressed  to  all  those  who  hold  the  faith  of  the  church,  and  not 
limited  to  any  particular  section.  This  is  the  only  supposition 
■which  is  consistent  with  the  loose  epistolary  form,  and  with  the 
subject  matter  of  the  composition. 

The  argument  of  the  Epistle  is  not  very  easy  to  trace.  The 
difficulty  is  due  to  its  apparently  fragmentary  character  and  the 
loose  connection  of  the  thoughts  contained  in  it.  In  despair  of 
finding  any  proper  sequence  of  ideas,  many  have  sought  to  infer 
from  this  want  that  the  Epistle  itself  must  have  been  composed 
by  the  apostle  when  enfeebled  by  old  age.  Some,  again,  speak 
of  the  "easy  and  familiar"  style,  which  maintains  no  strict  order 
and  easily  repeats  itself  The  Epistle,  however,  shows  quite  as 
decided  traces  of  artistic  arrangement  and  strict  thought  as  the 
Fourth  Gospel  (see  especially  ii.  12 — 14,  v.  6 — 9,  v.  18 — 21). 
If  one  attends  to  the  connecting  links  between  these  peculiar 
series  of  thought,  with  their  mystic  language  struggling  to  set 
forth  the  inner  life  in  all  its  fulness  and  reality,  the  following 
result  should  appear  as  to  the  arrangement  of  the  material  of 
the  Epistle. 

i.  1 — 4.  Thu  Introduction.  The  form  of  the  salutation  (which 
sounds  somewhat  weak  in  verse  4,  viz.  in  the  wish  that  the  joy 
of  the  readers  may  be  full)  is  made  a  vehicle  to  convey  the 
central  thought  of  the  writer,  his  doctrine  concerning  the  nature 
and  person  of  Christ,  which  he  regards  as  the  very  kernel  or 
pole-star  of  the  gospel.  The  conclusion  of  the  Epistle  brings  us 
back  again  to  the  very  same  thought  (v.  20).  Starting  from  this 
point,  the  apostolic  address,  which  is  rather  hortatory  and  con- 


183  THE  FIRST  EPISTLE  OF  JOHN. 

solatory  than  directly  didactic,  proceeds  in  three  successive  dis- 
courses. These  three  discourses  all  deal  with  the  same  subject, 
but  they  attack  it  from  different  points,  and  each  one  is  more 
profound  and  penetrating  than  the  preceding,  so  that  there  is  an 
unmistakable  climax  which  is  reached  by  three  successive  stages. 

The  First  Part  of  the  apostolic  appeal  (i.  5 — ii.  11)  starts  from 
the  fundamental  truth  of  the  gospel  that  God  is  light,  whence  is 
inferred  the  necessity  of  "walking  in  the  light,"  i.e.  in  the  com- 
mandments of  God,  and  especially  in  love. 

The  Second  Part  (ii.  12 — iii.  18)  starts  from  the  fact  that  the 
readers  are  actually  in  possession  of  salvation,  a  fact  which  is  set 
forth  in  three-fold  form  and  with  increasing  intensity.  To  these 
three  forms  of  this  possession  corresponds  a  three-fold  exhorta- 
tion: 1.  Be  steadfast  in  the  love  of  the  Father  (ii.  15 — 17);  2.  Deny 
not  the  Son,  but  retain  the  apostolic  doctrine  concerning  Christ 
(ii.  18 — 28) ;  3.  Keep  yourselves  unspotted  from  the  works  of 
the  devil,  especially  from  Cain's  sin  of  an  unloving  spirit  (ii,  29 
—iii.  18). 

The  Third  Part  (iii.  19 — v.  12)  proceeds  with  the  blessed  con- 
sciousness of  sonship  with  freest  access  to  God,  and  adds  to  this 
the  two-fold  evangelical  commandment  of  faith  in  the  name  of 
Jesus,  as  the  Son  of  God,  and  brotherly  love.  From  this  springs 
a  confident  admonition  to  stand  fast  in  faith  in  him  who  has 
appeared  in  the  flesh,  in  .spite  of  all  the  seductions  of  false  pro- 
phets (iv.  1 — 6),  and  a  second  admonition  to  be  steadfast  in  the 
brotherly  love  which  springs  from  God,  unites  us  to  God,  and  is 
founded  upon  a  faith  supported  by  the  testimony  of  God  himself 
(iv.  7 — V.  12).  This  testimony  to  the  divinely  established  faith 
in  the  Son,  without  whom  no  man  can  have  life  (v.  12),  brings 
the  third  part  to  a  close. 

The  Conclusion  (v.  13 — 21)  not  only  states  the  purpose  which 
the  writer  has  before  him,  but  also  contains  a  warning  against 
any  fellowship  with  those  who,  by  their  denial  of  him  who  has 
been  manifested  in  the  flesh,  are  involved  in  deadly  sin,  and 
against  apostasy  from  the  true  God  who  is  eternal  life.     Those 


THE  FIRST  EPISTLE  OF  JOHN.  189 

who  have  regarded  the  concluding  verses  (v.  14 — 21)  as  an 
appendix  which  has  no  internal  connection  with  the  fundamental 
principle  of  the  Epistle,  a  kind  of  after-thought  on  the  part  of 
the  writer,  or  even  an  addition  made  by  another  hand,  such  as 
we  find  in  the  twenty-first  chapter  of  the  fourth  Gospel,  only 
show  how  imperfectly  they  have  succeeded  in  understanding 
either  the  ideas  or  the  construction  of  the  Epistle. 


THE  FIEST  EPISTLE  OF  JOHN. 

Inteoduction,    i.  1 — 4. 

The  salutation  is  intended  to  introduce  the  leading  thought 
of  the  Epistle  at  once  into  the  reader's  mind.  It  cannot  fail  to 
remind  us  of  the  introduction  to  the  Fourth  Gospel.  It  contains 
exactly  the  same  view  of  the  eternal  Word  of  life,  which  had  come 
into  the  world  in  a  visible  and  tangible  form  in  the  person  of 
Jesus  Christ  (John  i.  14,  xx.  27).  The  writer  further  desires  to 
appear  as  an  apostolic  eye-witness.  Hence  the  representation  of 
his  authority  is  here  still  more  fictitious  than  in  the  Gospel.  In 
the  Gospel,  it  is  only  for  the  statement  of  xix.  34  that  he  directly 
appeals  to  the  authority  of  John  as  an  eye-witness  (comp.  Vol.  I. 
pp.  19,  203  sq.).  In  this  First  Epistle,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
he  intends  to  represent  John  himself  as  speaking  throughout. 

1.  From  ver.  2,  it  is  clear  that  that  which  was  froia  the,  hegin- 
ning  can  only  mean  the  Son  of  God  (as  in  ii.  13,  14),  and  not 
the  gospel.  That  he  is  spoken  of  as  "  that  which,"  instead  of 
"he  who,"  is  only  due  to  the  comparison  with  what  follows. — Seen  : 
or  better,  "beheld,"  i.e.  seen  for  some  time,  not  simply  for  a 
moment.  The  emphasis  here  laid  upon  the  tangibility  (our  Jiands 
have  handled)  is  due  to  the  writer's  opposition  to  the  Gnostic 
school,  which  dissipated  the  human  life  of  the  Eedeemer  into  a 
mere  appearance  of  reality.  —  Word  of  life :  This  does  not  mean 
the  word  "  concerning  life,"  but  the  personal  Word  who  is  the 
source  of  life  for  all,  and  hence  is  called  the  Life  in  ver.  2. 

2.  This  Eternal  Life  is  a  person,  and  as  such  a  complete  reality, 
■who  has  become  ours  by  revealing  himself  to  us. 

3.  The  plural  pronoun  toe  is  probably  intended  to  include  the 
testimony  of  the  other  apostles. —  With  us:  Fellowship  with  those 
who  declare  this  message,  is  more  definitely  fellowship  with  the 
Father  and  the  Son,  i.e.  an  actual  fellowship  in  eternal  life,  which 
must  of  course  lead  to  perfect  joy. 


9]  I.  JOHN.  191 

4.  An  extension  of  the  usual  greeting,  which  simply  wislies 
the  readers  "joy" — corresponding  to  the  lengthiness  of  the  whole 
of  the  first  sentence.  [Lachmann,  Tischendorf,  Alford  and  Tre- 
gelles,  following  two  of  the  best  MSS.,  agree  in  reading,  "  And 
these  things  we  write,  that  our  joy  may  be  full."  This  must 
then  be  understood,  not  as  a  salutation,  but  as  the  expression  of 
the  writer's  desire  that  his  joy,  and  the  joy  of  those  whom  he 
represents,  may  be  made  perfect  by  the  success  of  his  Epistle  in 
healing  the  divisions  of  the  church,  and  uniting  in  brotherly  love 
all  who  "  confess  that  Jesus  Christ  is  come  in  the  flesh"  (iv.  2).] 

Paet  I.    i.  5 — ii.  11. 

i.  5 — ii.  2.   Tlie  hdievers  are  loarned  against  walking  in  darkness. 

5.  Of  Mm  should  be  "from  him,"  i.e.  from  the  Son  of  God 
who  has  appeared. — God  is  light :  This  denotes  the  perfection  of 
God  ;  it  excludes  alike  the  evil  and  the  worthless.  The  complete 
revelation  of  this  "light"  took  place  through  the  Son.  It  is  the 
foundation  of  perfect  saving  knowledge,  inasmuch  as  the  fulfil- 
ment of  our  divine  destiny  has  its  roots  in  it. 

6.  Darkness  should  be  "  the  darkness." — Fellowship  with  God 
allows  no  evil  conduct.  He  who  is  in  darkness  is  not  in  the 
light.  To  confess  God,  and  yet  to  sin,  is  a  practical  denial  of 
the  truth. 

7.  Along  with  fellowship  with  God  goes  also  the  fellowship 
of  the  redeemed  among  themselves,  and  the  true  fountain  of 
purification  is  opened  to  them. — The  blood  of  Jesus  Christ 
cleanseth  continuously,  as  long  as  sin  still  remains,  inasmuch 
as  faith  in  God's  act  of  love,  completed  in  the  surrender  of  His 
Son  to  death,  breaks  down  the  power  of  sin  and  leads  to  the 
remission  of  debt. 

8.  We  cannot  deny  that  we  have  sin.  To  do  so  would  itself 
he  self-deception,  and  a  proof  that  we  have  no  part  in  the  truth. 

9.  Sins:  It  should  be  noticed  that  the  writer  speaks  of  sins 
in  the  plural.  We  must  confess  not  only  our  sinfulness  in 
general,  but  our  individual  sins  and  faults.  Probably  this  in- 
cludes penitent  confession  before  the  congregation. —  He  is  faith- 
ful and  just,  &c. :  God  manifests  His  faithfulness  in  the  prospec- 
tive forgiveness.  His  justice  (or  better,  righteousness),  in  cleans- 
ing us  from  all  unrighteousness. 


192  7.  JOHN.  [i.  10— ii.  7 

10.  We  not  only  deceive  ourselves  (ver.  8),  but  we  also  dispute 
the  truthfulness  of  God,  who  cares  for  us  as  for  sinners,  and 
thereby  declares  us  to  be  sinners. — His  word  is  a  word  tliat 
redeems  from  sins,  and  that  therefore  cannot  manifest  its  saving 
power  in  one  who  denies  his  sin.  There  is  no  doubt  that  this 
is  connected  with  the  writer's  contest  with  the  Gnostics,  who 
regarded  themselves  as  the  pre-eminently  spiritual. 

ii.  1.  Children :  This  expresses  the  warm  feeling  of  a  father's 
heart,  but  at  the  same  time  it  claims  filial  respect. — ^m  =  fall. 
This  refers  to  such  sins  as  endanger  the  whole  possession  of  sal- 
vation and  participation  in  Christian  fellowship.  Such  a  sinner 
is  directed  to  the  mediation  and  advocacy  of  Jesus  Christ  before 
God,  penitent  confession  of  the  sin  being  of  course  assumed  (i.  9). 
Only  one  who  is  righteous  can  effectually  pray  for  the  unrigh- 
teous.— \_Advocate :  Gr.  "  Paraclete,"  the  same  word  that  is  ren- 
dered "Comforter"  in  John  xiv.  16,  26,  xv.  26,  xvi.  7.] 

2.  Jesus  Christ  is  not  only  an  advocate,  but  also  a  propitiation 
[there  is  no  definite  article  in  the  Greek],  i.e.  his  death  contains 
in  itself  the  power  of  removing  guilt  and  judgment.  It  is  just  as 
the  propitiatory  sacrifice  which  suffices  for  the  sin  of  the  whole 
world,  that  he  is  also  the  effectual  advocate  for  tliose  who  are 
his  in  individual  serious  falls  into  sin. 

ii.  3 — 11.  Admonition  to  locdh  in  the  commandments  of  Jesus  and 
especially  in  h'otherly  love. 

3.  Hereby  we  do  knovj  that  we  knoiv  him:  i.e.  that  we  have  a 
true  knowledge  of  God  and  not  merely  imaginary. — His :  God's, 
not  Christ's. 

5.  Verily:  i.e.  "in  truth." — Pious  obedience  to  the  word  of 
God  is  the  measure  of  love  to  God,  and  the  genuine  sign  of 
belonging  to  God, 

6.  As  he  (i.e.  Christ)  walked:  That  we  should  walk  in  the 
footsteps  of  Christ  is  the  command  of  God. 

7.  The  commandment  which  is  not  new,  but  old,  is  usually 
taken  (with  ref.  to  John  xiii.  34)  to  be  the  commandment  of 
love,  but  without  sufficient  ground.  The  context  shows  that  the 
reference  is  to  the  requirements  of  the  gospel  generally.  The 
writer  says  that  he  does  not  write  a  new  commandment,  for 
man  shrinks  in  fear  from  new  demands.  Yet  in  another  con- 
nection he  speaks  of  it  (ver.  8)  as  a  new  commandment,  in  order 


ii.  7 — 14]  /.  JOHN.  193 

to  guard  against  its  being  received  with  indifference  as  a  thing 
universally  known.  It  is  new  in  the  world  and  to  the  world, 
inasmuch  as  it  has  never  before  been  made  a  perfect  truth,  but 
is  now  being  made  so  in  Christ  and  those  who  are  his  ;  now  that 
the  darkness,  i.  e.  the  ungodly  state  of  sin  and  blindness,  is  pass- 
ing away  and  the  true  light  already  shines. — The  words  from 
the  heginriing  at  the  end  of  the  verse  should  be  omitted. 
[8.  Is  past,  some  render  "is  passing  away."] 

9.  Brotherly  love  is  a  very  necessary  part  of  the  true  walking 
in  light.  What  is  meant  is  not  neighbourly  love  generally,  but 
love  of  the  brethren  in  the  Christian  community. 

10.  Abideth :  In  love  lies  a  protecting  and  preserving  power. 
He  who  loveth  is  free  from  offence,  and  is  not  made  to  fall. 

11.  In  darkness  should  be  "in  the  darkness." 


Part  II.    ii.  12— iii.  18. 

ii.  12 — 14.     Three  grounds  ttpon  which  the  three  exhortations  rest. 

12 — 14.  Some  have  translated  here,  "  I  write  unto  you. .  .  . 
that"  &c.  (instead  of  because) ;  but  this  is  incorrect,  being  in  con- 
tradiction to  the  parallel  in  ver.  21,  and  altogether  weakening 
the  sense. — His,  i.e.  Christ's,  inasmuch  as  he  is  the  advocate 
(ii.  1)  and  the  propitiation  (ii.  2).  The  expression  for  his 
name's  sake  is  probably  used  with  a  reference  to  the  idea  of 
believing  on  his  name  (v.  13)  [see  note  however  on  v.  13.]  Faith, 
according  to  the  Epistle,  is  the  channel  of  salvation  and  so  also 
of  forgiveness. — Him  that  is  from  the  beginning :  the  only  begot- 
ten (i.  1). — The  wicked  one :  the  devil,  the  prince  of  this  world, 
who,  indeed,  since  the  work  of  redemption  was  completed  has 
been  powerless  against  the  believers.  —  Children  is  a  term  of 
endearment  intended  to  apply  to  all  to  whom  the  Epistle  is 
addressed.  Fathers  denotes  the  elder  portion,  and  young  men 
the  younger  portion,  each  being  reminded  of  that  particular 
aspect  of  salvation  which  must  afford  them  the  strongest  motive 
for  the  pursuit  of  a  Christian  life.  The  old,  in  view  of  approach- 
ing death,  find  comfort  in  him  who  was  from  the  beginning 
before  the  world,  and  so  is  surety  to  them  for  eternal  life.  The 
young  men,  who  stand  in  the  midst  of  fiery  temptation,  must 
derive  courage  and  firmness  from  the  thought  that  the  hardest 

VOL.  III.  0 


194  I.  JOHN.  [ii.  12—14 

thing  of  all  is  already  accomplished,  that  by  their  faith  they 
have  already  won  the  victory  over  the  prince  of  this  world. — 
Corresponding  with  this  three-fold  /  ivrite,  we  now  find  three 
times  /  have  loritten.  I  ivrite,  in  the  last  sentence  of  ver.  13, 
should  be  "I  have  written."  The  words  /  write  (vv,  12,  13) 
undoubtedly  refer  to  what  immediately  follows,  what  the  writer 
has  in  his  mind  and  is  just  going  to  write,  viz.  the  exhortations  to 
which  vv.  12 — 14  form  an  introduction,  and  the  motive  of  which 
is  contained  in  these  verses.  The  words  I  have  written  refer,  on 
the  other  hand,  not  to  anything  that  has  already  been  written, 
but  to  the  act  of  writing  the  whole  Epistle  itself  (comp.  v.  13). 
What  the  writer  means  is,  I  should  not  have  written  to  you  at 
all  unless  you  had  known,  &c.  We  certainly  must  not  suppose 
that  any  letter  had  previously  been  written,  or  that  the  Fourth 
Gospel  is  here  referred  to.  This  repetition  is  deliberately  and 
skilfully  planned  to  impress  more  strongly  on  the  readers' 
hearts  the  three  motives  of  the  writer.  It  serves  to  confirm 
what  he  says  by  developing  and  explaining  it. — The  word  chil- 
dren is  not  intended  to  denote  the  infant  portion  of  the  community, 
but  is  an  affectionate  term  including  all  members. —  Ye  have  linown 
the  Father :  Forgiveness  is  an  individual  manifestation,  the  chief 
manifestation  indeed,  of  the  fatherly  love  of  God.  They  know 
and  possess  it  fully,  with  all  its  blessed  consequences. — Him  that 
is  from  the  beginning :  This  is  simply  repeated,  and  standing  as 
it  does  between  the  variations  in  the  first  and  third  of  the  three 
clauses,  this  simple  repetition  is  the  more  impressive.  This 
knowledge  of  the  Son  is  a  point  which  the  writer  especially 
desires  to  keep  clearly  in  view.  He  hastens  on  to  it  in  ver.  13, 
and  returns  to  it  again  in  iv.  2.  The  extension  of  the  writer's 
declaration  of  his  motive  in  writing  to  the  young  men  is  only 
explanatory.  Let  them  know  and  consider  that  they  are  strong, 
that  is  to  say,  strong  in  overcoming  temptations  on  the  part  of 
the  world,  and  that  the  basis  of  their  strength,  the  word  of  God, 
has  a  place  in  them,  and  that  by  means  of  faith  in  the  word 
they  have  already  overcome  the  evil  one,  so  that,  as  far  as  they 
are  concerned,  he  is  already  vanquished,  and  in  regard  to  him 
they  have  only  to  take  care  that  their  victory  is  not  snatched 
away  from  them  again. 


ii.  15—19]  7.  JOHN.  195 

ii.  15 — 17.     First  cxliortation,  misivering  to  the  first  motive. 

Put  far  away  from  you  the  love  of  the  world,  and  be  steadfast 
in  the  love  of  the  Father. 

15.  The  ivorld,  against  which  the  readers  are  warned,  is  the 
vain  and  unclean  impulses  of  man  as  displayed  in  non-chris- 
tian  society. — The  things  that  in  the  world:  i.e.  the  treasures 
which  it  offers,  and  which  are  pursued  in  it. — Love  of  the 
world  and  love  to  God  are  inconsistent  with  one  another ;  hence 
love  of  the  world  is  not  for  those  who  hioio  the  Father,  and  have 
received  from  Him  forgiveness  of  sins. 

16.  Lust,  or  desire,  placed  in  connection  with  its  object  and 
its  satisfaction. — Lust  of  the  fiesh :  probably  all  those  sensual 
pleasures  which  we  speak  of  as  debauchery. — Lust  of  the  eyes: 
the  sinful  gratification  of  the  eyes  by  immoral  spectacles  (it 
must  not  be  supposed  to  mean  avarice). — The  pride  of  life :  v 
showy  manner  of  life  which  is  inwardly  worthless.  A  definite 
classification  of  different  kinds  of  worldly  love  is  not  to  be 
looked  for  here.  The  readers  simply  have  the  well-known  phe- 
nomena of  the  world  pointed  out  to  them. 

17.  He  who  loves  the  world  passes  away  with  the  world  and 
its  lust. 

ii.  18 — 28.  The  seeond  exhortation,  corresponding  to  the  second 

motive. 

Be  steadfast  in  the  apostolic  doctrine  that  Jesus  is  the  Christ, 
that  so  you  may  be  in  the  Son  and  in  the  Father. 

18.  [Last  time :  lit.  "  last  hour." — Shall  come :  lit.  cometh. — 
Last  time :  lit.  "  last  hour."] — The  end  of  the  present  age  of  the 
world.  The  appearance  of  Christ  is  at  hand. — The  Eabbis  also 
speak  of  an  Antichrist.  According  to  Christian  ideas,  the  appear- 
ance of  Antichrist  was  to  precede  the  return  of  Christ  and  the 
manifestation  of  his  glory. — Many:  From  the  appearance  of 
many,  the  writer  infers  that  the  one  Antichrist  is  at  hand.  The 
use  of  the  plural  makes  the  definition  of  Antichrist  not  only 
more  comprehensive,  but  also  more  spiritual.  The  writer  con- 
siders the  denial  of  divine  truth  to  be  the  essence  of  antichris- 
tianity,  especially  the  denial  of  divine  truth  regarding  the  person 
of  Jesus  Christ. 

19.  Tliey  went  out  from  us:  Here  the  writer  is  evidently 

o2 


196  /.  JOE^.  [ii.  19—27 

speaking  of  a  school  which  had  ah^eady  gone  to  the  length  of 
actual  separation. — But  theij  were,  not  of  7is :  They  never  belonged 
properly  and  inwardly  to  us.  There  is  no  bond  of  relationship 
between  them  and  us. 

20.  Unction :  i.  e.  "  anointing."  You  are  in  possession  of  the 
Spirit.  The  Gnostics,  whom  the  writer  of  the  Epistle  is  attacking, 
in  their  conceit  claimed  that  they  alone  were  truly  filled  by  the 
Spirit,  and  consequently  they  refused  to  admit  that  th-e  general 
body  of  the  church,  the  Catholics,  as  they  are  called,  were  in 
possession  of  the  Spirit. — From  the  Holy  One:  i.e.  from  God. 
Possibly  an  antithesis  is  here  understood,  viz.  that  this  anointing 
is  from  God,  and  not,  like  that  of  the  antichristians,  from  the 
unholy  and  lying  god  of  this  world. — And  yc  hioic  all  things : 
The  truth  of  the  gospel  is  disclosed  to  you.  This  also  is  probably 
directed  against  the  pride  of  the  Gnostics,  who  denied  that  the 
church  possessed  the  true  and  full  knowledge,  and  claimed  it 
entirely  for  their  own  little  circle.  [There  are  two  ancient  MSS. 
that  read,  "  Ye  do  all  know."] 

22.  Eead,  "  Who  is  the  liar  but  he  that  denieth  that  Jesus  is 
the  Christ  ?  This  is  the  Antichrist  that  denieth  the  Father  and 
the  Son." — The  denial  that  Jesus  is  the  Christ  is  set  forth  as  the 
climax  of  falsehood.  In  this  consists  the  peculiar  essence  of 
antichristianity,  the  necessary  sequel  to  which,  in  the  writer's 
view,  is  the  denial  of  the  Father  also,  a  consequence  which  the 
Gnostics  themselves,  it  must  be  confessed,  did  not  infer. 

[23.  The  words  in  italics  in  this  verse,  though  omitted  in 
many  of  the  later  MSS.,  are  found  in  the  four  oldest,  and  are 
undoubtedly  genuine.] 

24.  \_Ahide  ....  remain  ....  continue :  the  same  word  in  the 
Greek.] — The  readers  are  directed  to  the  primitive  apostolic 
doctrine.  If  they  firmly  adhere  to  this,  they  will  preserve  an 
abidins;  communion  with  the  Son,  and  through  him  with  the 
Father,  and  so  preserve  eternal  life. 

27.  Eead,  "But  as  one  and  the  same  anointing  [so  some  MSS. 
read,  but  others  "  his  anointing"]  teacheth  you  concerning  all 
things,  so  it  is  true  and  is  no  lie ;  and  as  it  (i.  e.  the  anointing) 
hath  taught  you,  so  remain  in  him." — "One  and  the  same,"  i.e. 
for  you  and  for  everything. — And  is  truth,  &c.:  You  may  trust  to 
the  testimony  of  this  Spirit.     It  will  not  give  you  any  lie. — In 


ii.  27— iii.  4]  I.  JOHN.  197 

him:  i.e.  in  Christ,  who  is  the  very  person  concerning  whom 
the  Spirit  testifies  and  teaches. 

28.  [  When  he  shall  cqjiyear:  or  perhaps  "if  he  shall  appear."] — 
And  not  he  ashamed,  &c.,  should  be  "  and  not  have  to  depart  in 
shame  from  him  at  his  coming." 

ii.  29 — iii.  18.  The  third  exhortation,  answering  to  the  third  motive. 
Practise  righteousness  and  brotherly  love. 

ii.  29 — iii.  10.     Practise  righteousness. 

29.  He:  i.e.  Jesus  Christ,  in  whom  as  the  Son  ye  must  abide. 
— Doeth:  The  emphasis  is  on  this  word  (comp.  iii.  7,  18).  It 
is  not  talking  of  righteousness,  but  the  practice  of  it,  that  shows 
the  child  of  God. —  Ye  hwtv  that  every  one,  &c.,  should  be  "  know 
ye  that  every  one,"  &c. :  From  tlieir  knowledge  that  he  is  righ- 
teous they  are  to  draw  this  conclusion.  [The  Greek  is  ambiguous, 
and  may  either  be  taken  thus  or  as  in  A.V.] — He  ....  him:  i.e. 
God,  not  Christ. 

iii.  1.  The  sons  of  God :  "  children  of  God."  [So  the  Greek, 
after  which  the  oldest  MSS.  add,  "and  (such)  we  are."] — The 
greatest,  indeed  the  all-embracing,  gift  bestowed  by  the  Divine 
love  is  the  Divine  sonship. — Should  be  ealled:  i.e.  should  be 
appointed  to  the  rank  and  privilege  of  children  of  God  (comp. 
Eom.  viii.  17). — The  world :  We  are,  it  is  true,  not  recognized 
as  such  in  all  our  glory  by  the  world.  Eather  do  we  receive 
precisely  the  opposite  treatment.  We  may  comfort  ourselves  in 
this  by  remembering  that  the  world  knows  not  God  liimself,  so 
that  our  treatment  at  the  hands  of  the  world  is  only  the  same 
as  His. 

2.  In  spite  of  the  world's  refusal  to  recognize  us  as  such,  we  are 
already  children  of  God,  and  still  greater  things  are  in  store  for 
us,  nothing  less,  in  fact,  than  that  complete  likeness  to  God,  i.e. 
participation  in  His  glory  and  enjoyment  of  it,  which  shall  be 
communicated  to  us  by  our  seeing  Him  in  His  own  complete 
nature. — [Whe7i  should  probably  be  "if."] — He  shall:  "it  shall." 

3.  Purifieth  himself  should  be  "keepeth  himself  pure,"  i.e. 
preserveth  his  stainlessness. — He:  i.e.  Christ.  He  is  our  example. 
His  purity  is  the  only  true  and  authorized  standard  for  ours. 

4.  Read,  "Every  one  that  committeth  sin  committeth  a  breach 
of  the  law,  and  sin  is  the  breach  of  the  law." —  Whosoever  commit- 


198  /.  JOHN.  [iii.  4—8 

teth  sin  =  whoever  leads  a  life  of  sin. — No  doubt  there  were  many 
in  those  times,  as  in  our  own  day,  to  whom  a  life  of  sin  appeared 
to  be  merely  weakness,  and  unavoidable.  Among  the  Gnostics, 
however,  against  whose  influence  this  Epistle  is  especially 
intended  to  warn  its  readers,  a  school  soon  made  its  appearance 
which,  under  the  pretext  that  the  perfect  are  free  from  the  Law, 
gave  the  rein  to  every  lust,  and  boasted  of  its  denial  of  Jesus 
as  merely  the  Messiah  of  the  Law.  In  opposition  to  this,  the 
writer  declares  that  every  commission  of  sin  (of  course  as  ivillecV) 
is  a  breach  of  the  Law,  i.  e.  a  positive  transgression  of  the  Divine 
will.     In  fact,  this  is  declared  to  be  the  very  essence  of  sin. 

5.  \Our :  omitted  by  some  of  the  best  MSS.] — The  writer 
appeals  against  seductive  errors  to  the  Christian  consciousness 
of  the  readers,  which  declares  that  the  manifestation  of  the  Son 
is  equivalent  to  the  abolition  of  sin  and  guilt,  and  that  the 
Eedeemer  himself  is  sinless. 

6.  To  abide  in  him  and  to  sin  are  inconsistent  with  one 
another.  Therefore  whosoever  truly  and  in  the  full  sense  of  the 
words  ahideth  m  Jmn,  sinneth  not.  From  this  thought,  to  which 
it  must  be  confessed  experience  only  feebly  corresponds,  follows 
the  obligation  of  not  desiring  to  sin.  A  man  of  sin  is  not  only 
without  part  in  him,  but  is  altogether  without  any  understanding 
of  him  (hath  not  seen  him,  neither  known  him). 

7. '"Little  children,  let  no  man  lead  you  astray:"  From  this 
we  see  that  the  danger,  which  threatened  the  readers,  of  mistak- 
ing the  nature  of  sin  was  due  to  false  teaching.  These  words 
further  give  to  ver.  6  a  definite  application.  These  preachers 
of  a  life  of  moral  indifference  are  the  very  reverse  of  men  who 
know  Christ,  although  they  lay  claim  to  a  special  knowledge. — He 
that  doeth  righteousness :  We  must  not  only  talk  of  righteousness, 
but  must  also  practise  it,  exhibit  it  in  our  lives,  just  as  Jesus 
proved  by  his  acts  that  he  is  the  righteous  one. 

8.  What  is  meant  here  is  only  a  spiritual  and  moral  connec- 
tion and  descent,  not  a  natural  relation  such  as  we  find  described 
to  some  extent  in  the  writings  of  the  Jewish  Eabbis. —  From  the 
beginning:  i.e.  the  beginning  of  the  world.  His  conduct  has 
never  been  anything  different  since  the  world  began. — TJie  ivorks 
of  the  devil :  everything  that  is  evil  is  indirectly  a  work  of  the 
devil. 


iii.  9—18]  7.  JOHN.  199 

9.  His  (i.e.  God's)  seed:  This  in  the  Johannine  writings  is 
the  primal  creative  power  of  life,  the  same  thing  as  "  the  Spirit." 
— The  practical  application  of  this  is,  that  just  so  far  as  the  birth 
from  God  is  perfected  in  any  one,  the  man  in  whom  it  is  per- 
fected no  longer  lives  in  sin. — Cannot :  That  is  to  say,  it  is  con- 
trary to  his  nature. 

iii.  11 — 18.     Practise  'brotlierly  love. 

11.  From  the  heginning :  i.e.  the  beginning  of  their  knowledge 
of  the  gospel.   That  is  to  say,  it  is  a  fundamental  commandment. 

12.  Eead,  "Not  as  Cain  was  of  the  evil  one  and  murdered 
his  brother ;  and  wherefore  murdered  he  him  ?  Because  his 
works  were  evil  and  his  brother's  righteous." — Not  as  Cain :  i.  e. 
We  must  not  be  as  Cain, 

13.  Cain  is  to  the  writer  a  type  of  the  world  in  its  hostility 
to  the  children  of  God.  His  brother  is  a  type  of  the  men  of 
God  suffering  from  this  hostility  on  the  part  of  the  world. 

14.  [Ris  brother:  omitted  by  three  out  of  the  four  oldest 
MSS.] — Those  who  are  exposed  to  murderous  hatred  have 
already  passed  the  entrance  into  the  true  and  inalienable  life, 
while  the  unloving  persecutors  remain  in  death.  The  proof  that 
they  have  entered  into  life  is  the  brotherly  love  itself. 

15.  And  ye  know,  &c.:  Here  we  have  a  reference  to  the  Old 
Testament  law,  that  a  murderer  must  die,  but  the  words  of  the 
law  are  spiritualized  and  applied  to  the  true,  higher  life.  In  a 
murderer  eternal  life  has  no  place. 

16.  Herehj  perceive  we  the  love  of  God:  "Hereby  have  we 
recognized  love."  [The  words  "of  God"  are  not  found  in  any 
of  the  old  MSS.  The  lit.  translation  is,  "  Hereby  we  know  love, 
because,"  &c, :  i.e.  Christ's  laying  down  his  life  for  us  enables 
us  to  see  what  the  nature  of  the  true  and  highest  love  really  is.] 

17.  The  highest  manifestation  of  brotherly  love,  and  this  is 
required  even  of  us,  is  the  surrender  of  life.  How  much  more, 
then  must  it  be  required  of  those  who  desire  to  love  God  that 
they  should  not  withhold  the  necessaries  of  life  from  their 
brethren ! — [Bowels  of  compassion :  better,  "  heart."  Or  we  may 
render,  "  and  hardeneth  his  heart  against  him."  Comp.  note  on 
Phil.  7.] 

18.  Word  ....  tongue :  This  is  intended  to  signify  the  empty 


200  7.  JOHK  [iii.  18—24 

sound  of  mere  words  of  love.     The  double  phrase  is  no  doubt 
simply  employed  for  the  sake  of  the  antithesis  to  deed  ....  truth. 


Pakt  III.    iii.  19— V.  12. 

iii.  19 — 24.     The  blessed  possession  of  open  access  to  God.     The 
imperative  double  condition  attached  to  it. 

19.  Hereby :  by  the  practical  brotherly  love  just  mentioned. — 
[  JVe  hioiu :  four  of  the  oldest  MSS.  read,  "  we  shall  know."] — 
A7id  shall  assure  our  hearts:  i.e.  since  we  recognize  in  ourselves 
the  possession  of  this  brotherly  love. 

20.  This  verse  shows  the  reason  why  it  is  so  necessary  that 
we  should  be  able  to  assure  or  pacify  our  own  hearts  before  Him. 
If  even  our  own  heart,  that  is  to  say,  our  own  conscience  enfeebled 
and  confused  by  sin,  condemn  us,  we  must  surely  expect  a  far 
severer  sentence  from  God  who  is  greater,  God  who  is  a  very 
different  judge  from  our  own  heart,  and  from  whom  nothing 
whatever  is  hidden. 

21.  The  thought  of  ver.  19  is  here  recurred  to  again  in  con- 
nection with  the  expression  used  in  ver.  20. 

22.  To  the  release  from  judgment  is  added,  as  a  further 
ground  of  rejoicing,  the  confidence  that  we  receive  whatever  we 
ask  (of  course  provided  it  is  asked  in  the  manner  indicated  in 
V.  14). — The  keeping  of  the  divine  commandments  is  the  neces- 
sary hypothesis  of  this  blessedness  in  the  Christian.  Hence 
this  completes  the  introduction  of  the  third  part  of  the  didactic 
and  hortatory  appeal  of  the  Epistle.  The  substance  of  this  third 
part  is  stated  beforehand  in  ver.  23. 

23.  Practical  Christianity  is  the  fulfilment  of  a  double  com- 
mandment that  has  been  communicated  to  us,  the  commandment 
of  faith  in  the  name  of  Jesus  Christ  and  of  love  one  to  another. 
— As  he  yave  %cs  commandment :  This  refers  only  to  the  love 
which  we  are  commanded  to  show  to  one  another.  It  points  to 
the  nature  and  strength  of  Christian  love  (comp.  iii.  16). 

24.  The  reality  of  close  communion  between  God  and  man, 
wliich  is  known  by  the  imparting  of  liis  spii'it,  is  entirely  depen- 
dent upon  the  fulfilment  of  this  two-fold  commandment. — [Hath 
given:  strictly,  "gave."] 


iv.  1—4]  I.  JOHN.  201 

iv.  1 — 6.      Warning  against  the  spirit  of  unbelief. 

1.  Are  gone  out-,  i.e.  out  of  the  community  of  Christ,  which 
they  have  left  or  been  compelled  to  leave  (ii.  19). 

2.  Every  S'pirit  that  confcsseth,  &c. :  i.  e.  Every  spirit  that  con- 
fesseth  Jesus  Christ  as  him  who  appeared  in  the  liesh. — A  mark 
is  here  given  whereby  we  may  test  the  Spirit.  It  is  similar  to 
that  given  in  1  Cor.  xii.  3,  but  with  this  difference,  that  what  is 
here  required  is  not  simply  the  acknowledgment  of  Jesus,  but 
of  a  definite  doctrine  concerning  Jesus.  As,  however,  the  writer 
gives  in  his  Epistle  such  a  variety  of  signs  whereby  we  must 
manifest  the  genuineness  of  our  Christianity,  his  meaning  here 
is,  not  that  this  is  the  sole  mark  by  which  the  Spirit  may  be 
tested,  but  it  is  here  recommended  as  the  first  to  be  considered 
in  view  of  the  dangers  which  threaten  the  church  at  the  hands 
of  the  false  teachers.  They  did  not  regard  Jesus  as  Christ.  The 
divine  Eedeemer  had  not,  in  their  view,  been  made  man,  but 
only  appeared  to  be  a  man,  inasmuch  as  he  was  only  locally 
united  with  the  person  of  Jesus.  They  thus  denied  an  actual 
appearance  in  the  flesh;  so  that  the  death  of  Jesus  could,  in 
their  view,  have  no  redeeming  power  and  significance  (ii.  2, 
iv.  10).  As  this  makes  the  life  of  the  Eedeemer,  to  them,  merely 
an  apparent  life,  the  sign  of  the  true  spirit  required  of  them  is, 
that  they  should  confess  this  Jesus  as  the  Christ,  the  Son  of 
God  who  has  come  in  the  flesh  or  been  made  flesh  (John  i.  14). 

3.  Eead,  "  And  every  spirit  that  confesseth  not  Jesus  is  not 
of  God,"  &c. — After  the  word  Jesus  we  must  understand  "  as 
him  who  has  been  made  flesh"  [which  is  added  in  one  of  the 
old  and  many  of  the  later  MSS.] ;  but  the  shorter  expression 
actually  employed  is  very  emphatic,  intimating  that  the  long 
and  short  of  the  Gnostic  view  is,  that  it  is  a  rejection  of  Jesus 
as  the  one  Eedeemer.  Herein,  therefore,  every  one  has  a  simple 
test  whereby  to  distinguish  that  which,  according  to  ver,  3,  is  an 
elimination  of  the  essence  of  Christianity. 

4.  No  doubt  this  verse  refers  to  a  decisive  struggle  within 
the  Christian  communities  (probably  most  violent  in  Asia  Minor, 
as  we  should  also  infer  from  the  so-called  "Ignatian  Epistles"), 
the  result  of  which  was,  that  the  Gnostics  were  obliged  to  with- 
draw, and  which  contributed  not  a  little  to  the  supremacy  in 
the  church  of  the  doctrine  of  the  person  of  Christ,  which  is 


202  ^  /.  JOHN.  [iv.  4—12 

represented  by  the  Johannine  writings.  The  Epistle  bears  plain 
marks  enough  of  a  victory  but  recently  gained  over  a  serious 
danger,  and  it  is  only  when  we  pay  due  consideration  to  this 
fact  that  we  are  able  to  estimate  it  at  its  true  value  (especially 
in  V.  16,  21).  The  communities  have  shown  themselves  victo- 
rious ;  though,  indeed,  it  is  not  their  victory,  but  is  in  truth  the 
victory  of  him  who  is  with  them,  and  who  came  that  he  might 
destroy  the  works  of  the  devil  (comp.  iii.  8). 

5.  They  belong  to  the  world.  The  subjects  of  their  worthless 
speech  are  taken  from  the  world.  Hence  the  world  receives 
them. 

6.  We :  i.  e.  the  witnesses  who  proclaim  the  faith  (in  the 
sense  of  iv.  2,  3).  By  examining  whether  they  acknowledge  or 
do  not  acknowledge,  whether  they  hear  or  do  not  hear,  the  spirit 
of  truth  and  the  spirit  of  error  may  be  known. 

iv.  7 — v.  18.    Instmction  concerning  trotherly  love  and  exiiortation 

to  practise  it. 
iv.  7 — 11.     Brotherly  love  as  founded  in  the  love  of  God. 

7.  Love,  that  is  to  say  all  true  love,  has  God  for  its  source. 
Hence  he  that  loveth  is  a  child  of  God,  one  who  knoweth  God. 

8.  Knoweth  not  God  should  be  "  hath  not  recognized  God." — 
God's  very  being  is  entirely  love. 

9.  Toward  us  should  be  "among  us"  [or  perhaps,  as  some 
render  it,  "  in  us,"  the  meaning  then  being  that  our  spiritual 
nature  is  the  field  of  the  manifestation  of  God's  love]. — The  fact 
that  God  is  love  is  most  evident  in  the  highest  manifestation  of 
the  Divine  love  in  sending  his  Son  to  give  us  life. 

10.  To  he  should  be  "  as." — This  Divine  love  is  not  a  love  that 
needs  to  be  called  forth  by  our  love ;  it  is  a  spontaneous  love 
which  prepares  a  propitiatory  offering  for  sinners. 

11.  This  Divine  love  we  have  been  allowed  to  experience  in 
ourselves  in  its  highest  manifestation.  This,  then,  is  the  founda- 
tion of  the  duty  of  love  one  to  another. 

iv.  12 — 18.     Explanation  of  what  is  meant  hy  the  practice  of 
brotherly  love. 

12.  Between  God  and  the  finite  sinful  creature  there  is  in  the 
nature  of  things  so  vast  an  interval,  that  the  creature  cannot  so 
much  as  see  Him.  How  could  we  tlien  suppose  that  God  dwelleth 


iv.  12—18]  1.  JOHN.  203 

in  us,  i.e.  that  He  stands  in  the  most  intimate  communion  with 
us  ?  And  yet  there  is  a  perfectly  simple  way  of  enjoying  this 
communion  with  God,  namely,  through  love  one  to  another. 
Hereby  we  are  not  only  brought  into  true  and  lasting  union 
with  God,  so  that  His  love  is  our  possession,  but  in  addition  to 
this  our  love  to  Him  is  hereby  for  ever  perfected.  Perfect 
brotherly  love  implies,  as  its  consequent,  perfect  love  of  God. 

The  following  verses  are  an  elucidation  of  this  proposition, 
setting  forth  its  truth,  so  that  ver.  12  is  in  fact  the  theme  of 
vv.  13—18. 

13.  First  of  all,  the  idea  of  the  immanence  of  God  in  us  is 
completed.  In  the  first  place,  we,  as  loving,  dwell  in  Him  who 
is  love.  But  in  that  case  He  also  dwells  in  us.  As  proof  of  the 
reality  of  this  mutual  relation,  we  have  the  communication 
(limited  at  first)  of  His  spirit. 

14.  In  this  verse  the  idea  that  no  one  has  seen  God  receives 
its  necessary  supplement.  We  (the  apostolic  witnesses)  have 
seen  Him ;  that  is  to  say,  we  have  seen  the  true  revelation  of  God, 
have  seen  the  Son,  and  therefore  have  seen  the  Father  who  is  in 
the  Son  whom  He  himself  sent. 

15.  Whoever  acknowledges  our  testimony  to  the  divine  mis- 
sion of  Jesus  as  the  Son,  in  him  that  communion  with  God  is 
permanently  realized. 

16.  But  now  it  may  be  asked.  What  connection  has  brotherly 
love  with  all  this  ?  This  is  what  ver.  16  is  intended  to  show. 
Our  spiritual  possession  in  faith  and  knowledge  is  the  love 
which  God  has,  and  which  He  has  manifested  in  us.  To  us  God 
is  nothing  else  than  the  fulness  of  love.  Consequently,  if  any 
one  finds  his  own  nature  and  life  in  the  exercise  of  love,  the 
result  is  what  is  described  in  vv.  17,  18.  In  him  is  manifested 
the  perfection  of  love  (i.e.  of  love  generally,  including  love  to 
God),  in  the  joyful  confidence  with  which  we  look  for  the  day  of 
judgment.  And  we  are  able  to  do  this  because  we,  like  Jesus, 
though  we  are  in  the  world,  are  not  of  the  world. 

17.  Herein  is  our  love  made  perfect,  &c. :  "  Herein  is  love  per- 
fected in  us,"  &c. 

18.  Fear  hath  torment  should  be  "Fear  brings  punishment 
with  it"  [lit.  "hath  punishment"]. — If  (genuine)  love  be  in  us, 
fear  is  banished  far  away,  i.e.  the  fear  which  trembles  before  the 
wrath  of  God  and  expects  'punishment. 


204  I.  JOHN.  [iv.  19— V.  3 

iv.  19.  Co7inecting  link  between  the  preceding  section  and  that 
which  follows,  viz,  iv.  20 — v.  2, 

From  this  verse  to  the  end  of  the  Epistle,  the  writer  is  engaged 
in  showing  how  love  to  God  and  brotherly  love  are  inseparable, 
and  how  the  fulfilment  of  both  has  its  root  in  belief  in  Jesus  as 
the  Son  of  God. 

19.  "  Let  us  love  Him,  for  He  first  loved  us :"  an  exhortation 
to  return  the  free  love  of  God. — [The  verb  is  ambiguous  in  the 
Greek,  and  may  be  rendered  either  "  we  love"  or  "  let  us  love." 
In  addition  to  this,  there  is  some  variation  in  the  MSS.  Some 
of  the  oldest  MSS.  omit  "  him."  One  reads,  "  We  therefore  love 
(or,  "let  us  love"),  for  God  first  loved  us."] 

iv.  20— V.  2. 

20.  The  argument  from  the  invisibility  of  God  is  to  be  under- 
stood as  follows.  The  brother  is  placed  by  God  close  to  man,  as 
a  tangible  object  of  his  love.  Man  cannot  leave  his  brother  un- 
noticed. God  himself,  on  the  other  hand  (apart  from  faith  in  the 
Son),  is  hidden  from  man.  If,  then,  man  pays  no  attention  to  the 
nearest  and  most  tangible  object  of  his  love,  is  it  to  be  supposed 
that  he  loves  God,  who  is  hidden  from  him  ?  The  argument  is 
only  intelligible  on  the  supposition  that  what  is  meant  is  man 
not  having  yet  attained  the  faith  in  the  love  of  God  in  Christ, 
as  is  shown  by  the  beginning  of  the  verse. — [Of  the  three  oldest 
MSS.,  one  reads,  "How  can  he  love?"  &c. ;  and  the  two  others, 
"  He  cannot  love,"  &c.] 

21.  The  fulfilment  of  love  in  both  directions  is  moreover  an 
express  divine  commandment.  Here  we  have  an  allusion  to  the 
summing  up  of  the  Law  in  Matt.  xxii.  37 — 40. 

V.  1.  The  third  ground  maintained  is,  that  love  to  the  begetter 
includes  love  to  the  begotten — a  matter  of  experience. 

2.  Finally,  the  writer  sets  forth  that  there  is  no  other  mark  of 
the  genuineness  of  love  to  the  children  of  God,  than  love  to  God 
himself  and  the  keeping  of  His  commandments,  inasmuch  as 
love  to  Him  is  necessarily  carried  into  effect  in  the  keeping  of 
His  commandments  (ver.  3). 

v.  3—5. 
The  fulfilment  of  the  great  two-fold  commandment  of  love  is 


V.  3 — 6]  /.  JOHN.  205 

made  possible  and  easy  through  faith  in  Jesus  Christ  as  the  Son 
of  God. 

4.  "  For  whatsoever  is  born  of  God  overcometh  the  world ; 
and  our  faith  is  the  victory  that  hath  overcome  the  world." — 
The  seductions  and  hindrances  which  obstruct  the  fulfilment  of 
the  Divine  commandments  and  would  make  them  difficult,  are 
all  overcome  by  him  who  is  begotten  of  God,  and  who  therefoie 
has  the  divine  and  truly  spiritual  life  in  himself  The  means  of 
this  victory  is  faith,  the  very  existence  of  which  proclaims  the 
victory  over  the  world  as  a  completed  fact. 

5.  Putting  this  verse  in  the  form  of  a  question,  is  a  means  to 
bring  more  closely  home  to  the  reader  this  fundamental  question 
of  life.  It  is  only  faith  in  Jesus  as  the  Son  of  God  (in  the  sense 
of  iv.  2)  that  leads  to  victory  over  the  world.  This  assertion  is 
the  goal  of  the  discussion  concerning  the  Christian  life. 

V.  6 — 12.  Faith  in  Jesus  as  the  Son  of  God,  who  has  heen  manifested 
in  the  flesh,  established  by  divine  testimony  in  jproof  of  its 
fundamental  significance. 

6.  Eead,  "This  is  he  that  came  through  water  and  blood, 
Jesus  the  Christ  [the  best  MSS.  read  "Jesus  Christ"];  not  in 
the  water  alone,  but  in  the  water  and  in  the  blood." — This: 
i.e.  Jesus.  Here  the  statement  of  his  having  appeared  in  the 
flesh  is  not  repeated ;  but,  instead,  we  have  pointed  out  to  us 
that  which  proclaims  him  who  has  appeared  as  the  deliverer  of 
the  world.  He  came — showing  who  he  was —  through  water  and 
blood ;  i.  e.  by  founding  two  mysteries  which  free  the  world  from 
sin.  This  virtue  is  in  the  bafptism,  practised  by  him  through 
his  disciples  (John  iii.  22,  iv.  2),  and  also  in  his  sacrificial  blood, 
which  completes  in  the  Lord's  Supper  the  purification  begun  in 
baptism  (John  xiii.  8,  10),  and  is  a  fountain  of  perpetual  puri- 
fication (1  John  i.  7).  After  saying  "  This  is  he,"  the  writer  adds 
the  name  of  Christ  for  the  sake  of  emphasis,  and  also  for  the 
sake  of  adding  the  epithet  the  Christ,  in  opposition  to  the  Gnostic 
view.  He  is  the  Christ,  and  not  simply  the  unmeaning  form 
and  appearance  of  the  Christ.  Emphasis  is  laid  upon  the  two- 
fold operation  of  Jesus  as  the  Eedeemer,  because  the  writer 
desires  to  supply  the  number  of  witnesses  required  by  the  Scrip- 
ture (comp.  John  viii.  17).      These  two  witnesses,  water  and 


206  /.  JOHN.  [v.  6—12 

blood,  which  form  the  boundaries,  so  to  speak,  of  the  life  of  the 
Christian  community,  appear  again  in  connection  with  the  death 
of  Jesus  (John  xix.  34).  The  Spirit,  however,  i.e.  the  Spirit 
which  Jesus  sends  into  the  world  as  his  representative,  is  tlie 
one  that  has  properly  the  official  position  of  witness,  and  is  the 
source  of  all  testimony ;  because  the  Spirit  is  truth  itself,  and 
hence  truth  itself  and  the  testimony  to  the  truth  proceed  from 
the  Spirit. 

7,  8.  Read,  "For  there  are  three  that  bear  witness,  the  Spirit 
and  the  water  and  the  blood,  and  these  three  are  at  one." — The 
words  from  in  heaven  to  on  earth  must  be  removed  from  the  text  as 
an  acknowledged  interpolation,  as  even  Luther  recognized.  They 
are  a  feeble  and  unintelligent  marginal  note,  which  has  been  in- 
serted in  the  text  in  the  interest  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity. 
Their  only  effect  is  to  break  the  context.  The  purpose  of  the 
writer  is  to  adduce  three  witnesses  for  Jesus  as  the  Christ.  The 
first  and  proper  witness,  who  is  therefore  placed  at  the  head  of 
the  three,  is  the  Spirit  (of  Christ).  To  this  are  added,  however, 
the  water  and  the  blood,  with  their  purifying  power,  which  is 
itself  indeed  communicated  by  the  worldng  of  the  Spirit  (John 
iii.  5,  vi.  54,  63).  Hence  the  three  witnesses  cannot  but  agree 
together. 

9.  We  accept  the  (two-fold  or  three-fold)  testimony  of  men, 
and  how  much  more  must  we  do  this  with  the  greater  divine 
testimony !  But  the  testimony  of  God  is  itself  this  three-fold 
testimony :  Spirit,  water  and  blood. 

10.  Becord  should  be  "testimony." — The  believer  has  the 
testimony  in  himself,  inasmuch  as  he  has  in  himself  the  Spirit, 
and  therewith  the  operation  of  the  water  and  the  blood  in  him.  He 
must  therefore  feel  confident  of  his  cause,  having  an  inner  con- 
fidence in  faith.  Not  to  believe  in  this  testimony  is  equivalent  to 
being  guilty  of  the  senseless  offence  of  desiring  to  make  God  a  liar. 

11.  12.  Record :  "  testimony." — The  significance  of  the  divine 
testimony  is  here  explained  further.  It  is  testimony  to  the  fact 
that  God  has  given  us  eternal  life,  and  that  this  life  is  only  to 
be  found  in  the  Son.  Hence  verse  12  contains  the  culmination 
of  the  apostolic  appeal  which  has  been  tending  from  i.  1 — 4  to 
this  point.  To  have  the  Son  or  not  to  have  the  Son  is  life  or 
death. 


V.  13—16]  I.  JOHN.  207 

Conclusion,    v.  13 — 21, 
V.  13.  The  purpose  wJiich  the  loriter  has  set  before  himself. 

13.  Eead,  "  These  things  have  I  written  unto  you  that  believe 
on  the  name  of  the  Son  of  God,  that  ye  may  know  that  ye  have 
eternal  life  as  the  believers,  and  that  ye  may  believe  on  the 
name  of  the  Son  of  God."  [The  words,  "that  believe  on  the 
name  of  the  Sou  of  God,"  and,  "  and  that  ye  may  believe,"  are 
not  found  in  the  oldest  MSS.] — The  writer  here  declares  the 
purpose  that  he  has  in  view.  He  desires  to  confirm  and  to  pre- 
serve in  their  faith  those  who  already  believe  in  the  name  of 
the  Son  of  God,  Jesus  Christ.  This  desire  to  preserve  them  in 
their  faith  leads  him  to  the  two-fold  concluding  exhortation. 

V.  14 — 17.  No  prayer  for  those  who  sin  unto  death  ! 

14.  15.  Comp.  iii.  21,  22.  Eepetition  of  one  of  the  earlier 
thoughts  of  the  Epistle.  Here  it  has  no  independent  significance, 
but  only  serves  to  introduce  what  follows.  Faith  brings  joyful 
confidence  (13),  which  finds  its  chief  expression  in  relation  to 
prayer,  in  the  certainty  that  it  will  be  fully  heard. 

15.  Desired  should  be  "  have  asked." 

16.  And  he  shall  give,  &c.,  should  be,  "  And  He  will  give  life 
to  such  as  sin  not  unto  death"  [lit.  "give  him  life  to  those  that," 
&c.,  i.e.  answer  his  prayer  by  giving  life  to  those  that  sin  not 
unto  death]. — /  do  7iot  say,  &c. :  "  For  this  I  do  not  say  that  he 
shall  pray."  [So  giving  the  emphasis  on  this,  which  is  given  by 
the  order  of  words  in  the  Greek.] — Prayer  is  not  to  be  employed 
universally.  Intercession  for  brethren,  i.e.  for  the  members  of 
the  community  with  which  we  are  here  concerned,  is  not  to  be 
offered  in  all  cases.  It  must  not  be  made  in  case  of  mortal  sin. 
Commentators  have  been  sorely  exercised  about  this  sin.  The 
meaning  is  remarkably  simple.  The  whole  Epistle  is  a  warning 
against  anti-christianity,  the  denial  of  Jesus  as  having  been 
manifested  in  the  flesh,  the  denial  of  the  Father  and  of  the  Son 
(iv.  1 — 4,  ii.  18  sqq.,  esp.  22,  23).  This,  and  nothing  else,  is  to 
the  writer  a  sin  unto  death,  inasmuch  as  it  breaks  off  the  con- 
nection with  the  fountain  of  life.  Every  kind  of  communion 
must  be  cut  off  if  its  deepest  expression  in  intercession  for  a 
fallen  brother  is  strictly  forbidden,  and  the  intercession  itself, 
otherwise  universally  effective,  is  declared  fruitless.     We  see 


208  /.  JOHN.  [v.  16—20 

what  a  degree  of  tension  there  was  between  the  contending 
parties,  in  consequence,  no  donbt,  of  the  violence  of  the  struggle, 
and  how  even  the  most  powerful  minds  were  unable  to  be  just  to 
the  hated  opponent.  The  opponent  is  regarded  simply  as  a  child 
of  the  devil  (ver.  19), 

■  17.  Two  truths  the  reader  must  equally  cherish.  First,  the 
very  smallest  transgression  is  sin  (in  the  full  sense  of  iii.  4),  and 
therefore  may  not  be  lightly  committed.  But,  secondly,  there 
is  a  sin  which  does  not  end  hopelessly  in  death,  and  from  which 
a  return  to  salvation  is  possible. 

V.  18 — 21.  Warning  against  false  gods. 
The  intentional  three-fold  repetition  of  the  words  ive  knoiv  is 
intended  to  emphasize  the  certainty  of  the  possession  of  salva- 
tion. Many  times,  in  the  course  of  his  Epistle,  the  writer  has 
adduced  the  certainty  of  salvation  in  order  to  excite  his  readers 
to  the  preservation  of  this  possession.  Now,  in  conclusion,  he 
again  does  this  with  peculiar  emphasis. 

18.  Sinneth  not :  His  actions  do  not  partake  of  sin.  He  is 
not  in  the  service  of  sin.  His  attention  is  given  to  the  preser- 
vation of  himself,  and  in  this  he  cannot  fail.  The  evil  one  [so, 
lit.,  not  that  wicked  one]  has  no  power  over  him.  A  bold  state- 
ment of  the  Christian  certainty  of  victory  over  sin. 

19.  The  world  is  in  the  power  of  Satan.  We,  on  the  other 
hand,  belong  to  God. — [The  Greek  here  is  ambiguous,  and  may 
mean  either  "lieth  in  wickedness"  or  "lieth  in  the  evil  one,"  i.e. 
in  the  power  of  the  evil  one ;  but  the  latter  is  the  more  probable, 
as  "  the  evil  one"  has  just  been  spoken  of  in  ver.  18,  and  the 
contrast  here  is  between  the  world  which  is  his,  and  the  Chris- 
tian believers  who  are  God's.] 

20.  Eead,  "  And  we  know  that  the  Son  of  God  is  come,  and 
hath  given  us  an  understanding  that  we  know  the  true  God,  and 
that  we  are  in  the  true  God  through  the  mediation  of  His  Son 
Jesus  Christ,"  &c. — [The  readings  of  the  MSS.  vary  considerably 
in  this  verse.  The  reading  of  Tischendorf,  for  which  there  is  the 
most  MS.  evidence,  is,  "And  we  know  that  the  Son  of  God 
is  come,  and  hath  given  us  an  understanding  that  we  know 
Him  that  is  true ;  and  we  are  in  Him  that  is  true,  in  His  Son 
Jesus  Christ"  (i.e.  inasmuch  as  we  are  in  His  Son  Jesus  Christ; 
comp.  John  xvii.  21 — 23 :  "Even  as  thou  Father  art  in  me,  and 


V.  20, 21]  /.  JOEN.  209 

I  in  thee,  that  they  also  may  he  in  us  ....  I  in  them  and  thou 
in  me,"  &c.).] — This:  i.e.  the  God  who  is  im^Darted  to  us  through 
Christ. — The  true  God  (comp,  v.  6),  in  opposition  to  the  false 
gods  (ver.  21).  The  true  God  is  for  us  eternal  life.  What  can 
the  false  gods  give  to  you  ?     Beware  of  them  ! 

21.  Idols  should  be  "  false  gods."  What  is  meant  by  "  false 
gods"  ?  The  words  have  a  distinct  reference  to  the  passage 
immediately  preceding,  and  indeed  to  the  whole  Epistle.  Those 
who  deny  the  Son  have  not  the  Father.  To  them  tlie  place  of 
the  true.  God  is  taken  by  phantoms,  or  false  gods.  It  needs  no 
explanation  to  show  liow  admirably  this  agrees  with  the  double 
series  of  heavenly  powers  which  the  Gnostics  l^elieved  in.  It 
is  not  likely  that  there  would  be  any  necessity  to  warn  readers 
in  the  second  century  against  taking  part  in  heathen  idol  wor- 
ship, and  at  any  rate  there  is  nothing  to  connect  such  a  warning 
with  the  rest  of  the  Epistle. 


VOL.  III. 


THE    SECOND   EPISTLE    OE   JOHN. 


The  ancient  church  was  not  certain  whether  the  Second 
Epistle  of  John  should  be  included  in  the  canon  or  not.  It  is 
possible  that  the  reason  of  this  doubt  was,  that  the  contents  of 
the  Epistle  did  not  seem  to  be  of  sufficient  importance,  or  because 
it  has  the  appearance  of  being  merely  a  private  letter.  Eor  the 
most  part  it  was  regarded  as  a  production  of  the  apostle,  though 
there  were  some  who  considered  that  it  was  from  the  hand  of 
the  presbyter  John.  Strict  internal  criticism  shows  us  that  it 
stands  in  a  position  of  dependence  upon  the  First  Epistle,  of 
such  a  nature  as  to  exclude  identity  of  authorship.  The  style, 
while  departing  widely  from  that  of  the  First  Epistle  in  certain 
exjDressious  {the  doctrine  of  Christ,  ver.  9 ;  to  bring  this  doctrine, 
ver.  10  ;  and  especially  the  designation  of  the  confession  of  Christ 
as  a  commandment,  ver.  6),  yet  appears  to  be  borrowed,  with  the 
thoughts,  from  the  First  Epistle.  The  epistolary  form  is  more 
carefully  retained  than  in  the  First  Epistle,  but  artificially  and 
laboriously  (vv.  1,  12  sq. ;  see  notes). 

The  purpose  of  this  short  writing  is  clear.  In  unmistakable 
connection  with  the  First  Epistle,  here  and  there  with  verbal 
imitation  of  it,  the  writer  desires  to  impress  upon  the  believers, 
the  children  of  tlie  community,  the  necessity  of  a  strict  separa- 
tion from  the  Gnostic  sectaries,  in  order  that  the  community  of 
the  Lord  may  be  kept  clean.  The  apostle  John  is  introduced 
as  the  writer  of  the  Epistle  at  the  very  beginning,  under  the 
name  of  the  preshyter  (see  note).  If  the  person  who  is  known 
to  us  under  the  name  of  the  presbyter  John  had  been  intended 


THE  SECOND  EPISTLE  OF  JOHN.  211 

here,  or  had  really  written  the  Epistle  himself,  the  name  John 
would  not  have  been  omitted.  It  would  have  been  too  pre- 
sumptuous for  him  to  call  himself  simply  "  the  presbyter ;"  and 
besides,  considering  the  evident  imitation  of  the  First  Epistle 
both  in  form  and  substance,  it  would  have  been  ambiguous  and 
liable  to  be  misunderstood.  The  recipient  of  the  Epistle  appears 
as  a  lady  of  the  name  of  Kyria  [see  note  on  ver.  1].  That 
was  undoubtedly  a  woman's  name  in  common  use ;  but  the 
contents  of  the  Epistle  are  such  as  would  be  addressed,  not 
to  an  individual  or  to  a  family,  but  to  a  community.  Hence 
some  of  the  early  Fathers  have  instinctively  and  rightly  under- 
stood that  the  recipient  is  intended  to  represent  a  commu- 
nity, or  perhaps  the  whole  community  of  Christendom.  The 
name  Kyria  signifies  "  lady."  It  is  the  feminine  form  of  Kyrios, 
"  lord."  It  stands  for  the  community  whose  "  children "  the 
writer  desires  to  guard  against  being  led  astray,  those  children 
who  have  been  confided  to  her  by  the  Lord,  with  which  idea  the 
epithet  elect  (ver.  1)  agrees  admirably  (comp.  1  Pet.  v.  13).  This 
supposition  explains  also  the  greeting  from  the  "sister's  chil- 
dren" (ver.  13),  in  so  far,  that  is  to  say,  as  one  may  understand 
the  community  to  be  an  individual  community  rather  than  the 
whole  community  of  Christendom ;  not,  however,  any  definite 
one  in  particular,  but  each  of  the  existing  communities. 


p2 


THE  SECOND  EPISTLE  OF  JOHK 


1 — 3.  Sahdation. 
The  resemblance  to  the  First  Epistle  is  sufficient  to  show  that 
the  writer  is  supposed  to  be  the  apostle  John.  He  is  represented 
as  an  old  man,  still,  like  a  father,  taking  upon  himself  the  care 
of  his  communities,  and  even  the  individual  members  of  them, 
witli  glowing  love,  and  as  provided  with  an  authority  which  is 
unique  in  its  way.  That  is  to  say,  he  is  represented  just  as 
John  appears  in  the  traditions  of  the  post-apostolic  age.  With 
these  two  ideas  of  his  age  and  his  authority,  agrees  well  the 
epithet  elder  [Gr.  2^'^'csbyter~\,  without  further  explanation.  His 
is  so  prominent  a  figure  that  there  is  no  need  to  mention  his 
name.  The  word  elder  is  used  in  the  second  and  third  of  the 
Johannine  Epistles  in  a  comprehensive  sense,  so  as  to  include 
even  the  apostles.  It  designates  great  men  of  leading  and  autho- 
rity in  the  church. 

1.  Eead,  "The  elder  unto  the  elect  Kyria  and  her  children 
whom  I  love  in  truth,"  &c. — The  epithet  elect  is  best  understood 
on  the  hypothesis  that  Kyria  is  a  figurative  name  for  the  com- 
munity of  the  Lord  {Kyrios).     [Comp.  Introd.  p.  211.] 

2.  Eead,  "  For  the  sake  of  the  truth  which  dwelleth  among 
us ;  and  may  it  be  with  us  for  ever !"  [There  is  no  MS.  autho- 
rity for  this  reading  of  the  second  clause.  All  the  MSS.  have, 
"and  shall  be  with  us  for  ever."] — It  should  be  noticed  how 
even  in  the  opening  salutation  tlie  truth  is  emphasized  as  having 
its  dwelling  fixed  in  the  community,  and  being  for  ever  firmly 
established,  and  also  that  Jesus  Christ  is  already  spoken  of  here 
as  "the  Sou  of  the  Father"  (ver.  3). 

3.  [Grace  he  loith  you,  mercy  and  peace,  &c.:  The  oldest  MSS. 
read,  "  There  shall  be  with  us  grace,  mercy,  peace,"  &c.] — Peace  = 
salvation. — In  truth  and  love :  These  should  constitute  the  ele- 
ment in  which  you  live ;  peace  being  placed  first. 


4—7]  //.  JOHN.  213 

4 — 11.    Warning  and  general  directions  in  regard  to  the  Gnostics 
who  have  withdraivn  from  the  Christian  community. 

4.  I  found:  John  is  represented  as  giving  the  results  of  a 
visitation,  and  as  having  a  fresh  visitation  in  prospect  (ver.  12). 
He  gives  prominence  to  the  satisfactory  side  of  his  visit,  simply- 
hinting  at  the  less  satisfactory  by  the  little  word  of  (i.  e.  some 
of)  thy  children. —  Walling  in  trvth  is  erroneously  taken  to 
mean  Christian  conduct,  and  then  the  commandment  from  the 
Father  is  interpreted  as  love.  What  the  writer  means  is,  rather, 
walking  in  the  doctrine  of  the  church  as  divine  truth  (comp. 
ver.  9).  To  walk  thus  is  called  a  divine  commandment,  probably 
with  reference  to  1  John  iv.  1 — 6,  as  ver.  5  refers  to  1  John  ii.  7, 
iii.  11.  The  children  of  the  mother  church  already  stand  in  the 
truth  (comp.  1  John  iv.  4) ;  but  they  are  admonished  (as  in  the 
First  Epistle)  unto  brotherly  love. 

5.  Bead,  "  And  now  I  beseech  thee  Kyria  (not  writing  it  unto 
thee  as  a  new  commandment,  but  as  one  that  we  had  from  the 
beginning)  that  we  love  one  another." 

6.  From  the  exhortation  in  ver.  5  the  writer  passes  on,  some- 
what artificially,  to  the  corresponding  exhortation  to  adhere 
steadfastly  to  the  truth,  i.e.  to  the  ecclesiastical  doctrine  con- 
cerning Christ,  for  which  he  finds  support  in  1  John  v.  3.  The 
(true)  love  (no  longer  simply  brotherly  love)  is  walking  according 
to  God's  commandments  (an  un-Joliannine  expression).  Then 
a  commandment  is  straightway  produced  with  the  words,  This  is 
the  commandment,  &c.  Then  this  commandment  is  described  as 
one  that  has  been  impressed  upon  the  Christians  from  the  begin- 
ning ;  in  which  again  there  is  probably  an  allusion  to  the  First 
Epistle  (comp.  1  John  iii.  23),  and  perhaps  also  to  the  Fourth 
Gospel  (e.g.  John  vi.  29,  40). 

7.  Eead,  "For  many  deceivers  are  gone  out  into  the  world, 
who  confess  not  Jesus  Christ  as  coming  in  the  flesh.  This  is 
the  deceiver  and  the  antichrist." — Instead  of  directly  saying 
what  the  commandment  is  in  which  they  should  walk,  the  writer 
calls  attention  to  the  deceivers  who  refuse  to  acknowledge  the 
coming  in  the  flesh,  and  who  therefore  have  not  the  true  doc- 
trine concerning  Christ,  and  so  have  gone  out  from  the  Christian 
community.  The  readers  are  warned  against  them  as  against 
the  representatives  of  anti- Christianity  (vv.  7,  8). 


214  //.  JOHN.  [8—13 

[8.  Two  of  the  oldest  MSS.  read,  "Look  to  yourselves  that 
you  lose  not  the  things  which  ye  have  wrought,  but  that  ye 
receive  a  full  reward."] 

9.  Eead,  "  Whosoever  transgresseth  (the  commandment)  and 
abideth  not  in  the  doctrine  concerning  Christ  hath  not  God. 
He  that  al)ideth  in  the  doctrine  concerning  Christ,  he  hath  both 
the  Father  and  the  Son."  [Instead  of  Whosoever  transgresseth, 
the  three  oldest  MSS.  have  "  Whosoever  goeth  forward,"  or,  as 
some  render  it,  "  Whosoever  taketh  the  lead." — The  same  MSS. 
omit  of  Christ  in  the  second  half  of  the  verse.] — Here  the  writer 
speaks  of  transgression  of  a  commandment,  and  the  context  shows 
incontrovertibly  that  the  ecclesiastical  doctrine  is  regarded  as  a 
divine  commandment.  It  is  the  commandment  to  which  atten- 
tion is  called  in  ver.  6. — Hath  not  God,  is  an  expression  which 
indicates  some  other  writer  than  the  author  of  the  First  Epistle. 
• — He  hath  loth,  connects  this  Epistle  with  1  John  ii.  23. 

10,  11.  Neither  hid  Mm  God  speed,  for  he  that  hiddeth  him  God 
speed,  &c.:  "Neither  greet  him,  for  he  that  greeteth  him,"  &c. — 
On  these  verses  the  whole  Epistle  turns.  No  manner  of  fellowship 
with  apostates  !  No  kind  of  assistance  must  be  offered  to  those 
who  have  departed  from  the  fellowship  of  the  Christian  com- 
munity. This  rule  is  fully  explained  by  the  rupture  that  had 
followed  the  serious  contests  in  the  church. — The  evil  deeds  are 
probably  not  so  much  immoral  conduct  with  which  the  adver- 
saries are  charged,  as  the  wasting  of  the  community  by  false 
doctrines.  Those  who  had  gone  out  could  not  fail  to  endeavour 
to  draw  others  after  them. 

12,  13.  Conclusion. 

12.  This  indication  of  the  more  cordial  method  of  direct  inter- 
change of  thoughts  is  intended  to  give  the  Epistle  a  warmer 
tone.  So  also  is  the  concluding  phrase  of  the  verse,  borrowed 
from  1  John  i.  4. 

[13.  See  lutrod.  p.  211.] 


THE   THIED   EPISTLE    OF   JOHN. 


In  regard  to  this  short  writing,  as  in  the  case  of  the  preceding 
one,  the  ancient  church  was  in  doubt  whether  it  properly  be- 
longed to  tlie  collection  of  Scriptures.  Probably  the  grounds  of 
doubt  also  were  the  same  as  in  the  case  of  the  Second  Epistle. 
For  the  most  part,  however,  it  was  acknowledged  as  Johannine, 
which  was  very  natural,  considering  its  resemblance  to  the  two 
other  Epistles.  Internal  criticism  shows  that  the  Third  Epistle 
is  a  somewhat  poor  and  feeble  imitation  of  the  Second,  and  that 
it  is  consequently  not  likely  to  be  by  the  same  writer  (comp. 
3  John  1  with  2  John  1 ;  3  John  3  with  2  John  4 ;  and  especially 
3  John  13,  14,  with  2  John  12).  An  imitation  by  a  later  hand 
is  further  indicated  by  the  awkward  application  of  John  xxi.  24, 
this  testimony  in  favour  of  John  being  here  put  into  his  own 
mouth  (ver.  12). 

The  object  of  the  Epistle  is  to  exhort  the  communities,  and 
especially  the  rulers,  to  assist  the  evangelists  and  to  support 
them  hospitably.  The  warning  example  of  Diotrephes  indicates 
insolent  ill-treatment  on  the  part  of  some  rulers  of  communities, 
who  in  their  self-seeking  even  went  so  far  as  to  treat  the  evan- 
gelists themselves,  the  wandering  missionaries,  with  hostility. 
For  this  exhortation  the  Second  Epistle  offered  itself  to  the 
writer,  as  already  suitable  in  a  slightly  altered  form.  The  pres- 
byter remains.  In  place  of  Kyria  we  find  Gains,  a  name  of  good 
reputation  which  appears  frequently  in  the  early  traditions,  so 
that  we  may  suppose  that  the  name  of  Demetrius  (ver.  12)  is  also 
taken  from  the  same  source,  while  Diotrephes  (like  Alexander 


^^^  TEE   THIRD  EPISTLE  OF  JOHN. 

the  smith,  2  Tim.  iv.  14,  comp.  1  Tim.  i.  20,  2  Tim.  ii.  17)  appears 
to  have  been  a  traditional  type  of  avarice.  Gains  is  represented 
as  the  recipient  of  the  Epistle,  because  the  exhortation  appeals 
to  the  willmgness  of  certain  highly-esteemed  members  of  the 
community  to  do  their  duty  in  regard  to  the  matter  of  which  it 
treats. 


THE  THIED  EPISTLE  OF  JOHIST. 


1,  2.  Greeting  and  good  ivishes. 

1.  The  elder :  see  note  on  2  John  1. — In  the  truth  should  be 
"in  truth." 

2.  Above  all  things :  i.e.  most  particularly.  Not,  as  some  take 
it,  "  over  (i.  e.  concerning)  all  things." 

3 — 12.  Unco^iragement  to  the  exercise  of  hospitality  towards  evan- 
gelists, and  2varning  against  harsh  and  hostile  treatment  of  them. 

3.  Borrowed  from  2  John  4.  Here,  however,  ivalldng  in  the 
truth  [strictly,  "  in  truth,"  as  in  ver.  1  and  2  John  4]  has  a  dif- 
ferent meaning  from  what  it  has  there,  and  simply  signifies  truly 
Christian  conduct. 

5.  6.  Eead,  "  Beloved,  thou  actest  in  true  Christian  fashion 
[lit.  "doest  a  faithful  thing"]  in  all  thy  labours  [lit.  "that  which 
thou  doest"]  for  the  brethren,  and  especially  for  strangers.  And 
they  have  testified  to  thy  love  before  the  community  ;  and  thou 
wilt  do  well  if  thou  further  them  in  a  manner  worthy  of  God." 

6.  "Worthy  of  God:"  their  work  is  God's  work,  inasmuch 
as  they  are  exercising  the  calling  of  preachers  of  the  gospel  to  the 
heathen  (comp.  ver.  7). 

7.  His  name's  sake  should  be  "  the  name's  sake"  [so  all  the 
old  MSS.].  "  The  name,"  without  any  distinctive  epithet,  is  the 
name  in  which  salvation  lies  contained,  i.e.  the  name  of  Jesus 
Christ  which  they  proclaim. 

8.  Eead,  "  It  is  our  duty,  therefore,  to  support  such,"  &c. — In 
this  verse  the  writer  states  plainly  the  proper  object  of  his  Epistle, 
viz.  to  encourage  the  support  of  the  evangelists,  especially  by 
showing  them  hospitality.  This  is  required  as  a  Christian  duty, 
and  it  is  recommended  by  the  consideration  that  in  so  doing  we 
co-operate  in  the  dissemination  of  the  truth. 

9.  Diotrephes,  &c. :  i.  e.  Diotrephes,  who  lays  claim  to  rule 
among  them,  pays  no  attention  to  us. — Here  the  writer  explains 


218  III.  JOHN.  [9—14 

why  he  has  taken  the  step  of  writing  a  private  letter.  The 
epistle  which  he  had  addressed  to  the  church,  Diotrephes  has 
been  guilty  of  rejecting.  This  is  a  literary  artifice  adopted  by 
the  writer  in  order  that,  in  the  person  of  this  ruler  of  a  commu- 
nity (bearing  a  name  of  bad  reputation  in  the  traditions  of  the 
church),  who  ambitiously  carries  out  his  own  evil  purposes,  he 
may  expose  abuses  of  this  kind  which  had  crept  into  the  Chris- 
tian communities. 

10.  /  vnll  Tcmemler  his  deeds  should  be  "  I  will  remonstrate 
with  him  concerning  his  deeds." — Ifalicious  words :  Probably  the 
letters  of  recommendation  with  which  such  evangelists  were  pro- 
vided were  often  rejected  with  surly,  insulting  words.  Not  only 
did  the  community  itself  fail  to  provide  for  such  guests,  but  even 
when  individual  members  of  the  community  desired  to  take 
charge  of  them  and  assist  them,  they  were  discouraged,  and 
obstacles  were  put  in  the  way  of  their  so  doing. — And  casteth 
them  out  of  the  church :  There  seem  to  have  been  cases  in  which 
the  evangelists  were  driven  out  of  the  community  altogether, 
perhaps  from  fear  lest  their  activity  should  involve  the  com- 
munity in  danger  and  persecution.  We  cannot  suppose  that 
those  who  received  such  travelling  brethren  into  their  houses 
were  themselves  expelled  from  the  community,  though  this  is 
the  meaning  attached  to  these  words  by  commentators  almost 
without  exception. 

11.  Follow  not :  i.e.  "  imitate  not." — The  example  of  Diotrephes 
is  held  up  to  Gains  as  a  warning.  Testimony  is  borne  to  the 
brilliant  example  of  Demetrius,  on  the  other  hand  (ver.  12),  in 
regard  to  this  very  duty  of  Christian  hospitality. 

12.  Eead,  "Demetrius  hath  the  witness  of  all,  and  of  the 
truth  itself;  and  we  also  bear  witness,  and  thou  knowest  that 
our  witness  is  true." — Tlie  truth  itself  could  not  fail  to  give  the 
best  testimony  if  it  were  called, 

13 — 15.  Conclusion.' 

This  is  evidently  a  feeble  imitation  of  the  conclusion  of  the 
Second  Epistle.  The  want. of  any  actual  historical  bearing  in  the 
Epistle  is  concealed  under  the  request  to  greet  the  friends  each 
by  name,  as  if  each  had  been  expressly  mentioned  in  the  Epistle. 

[13.  Pen:  lit.  "reed."] 

14.  By  name :  i.  e.  each  one  by  his  or  her  own  name. 


THE   EPISTLE    OF   JUDE. 


This  Epistle  purports  to  have  been  written  by  Jiide  (or  Judas), 
the  brother  of  Jesus,  and  is  addressed  to  Christendom  in  general. 
But  the  contents  and  the  historical  allusions  of  the  Epistle 
indicate  a  late  post -apostolic  age  as  the  date  of  its  composi- 
tion, when  the  ecclesiastical  movement  for  the  exclusion  of  the 
Gnostic  heretics  was  on  foot. 

The  Epistle  is  devoted  to  the  confutation  of  false  teachers, 
who  can  only  be  Gnostics  of  the  free-thinking  school.  They 
exalt  themselves  even  above  the  God  and  the  angels  of  the  Old 
Testament  as  subordinate  powers  (vv.  8,  10),  above  Jesus  as 
only  the  human  vehicle  of  the  higher  Christ  (ver.  4),  and  above 
the  ordinary  Christians  as  simply  psychical  men  (i.e.  possessed 
of  a  soul  only),  as  though  they  themselves  alone  were  the  spiritual 
men  (ver.  19).  They  were  Gnostics,  however,  not  of  the  school 
that  was  hostile  to  the  flesh,  but  of  the  libertine  (free-thinking) 
school  (comp.  vv.  4,  8,  10,  16,  18).  These  libertine  Gnostics 
appear  still  in  the  Christian  community  (ver,  12),  but  as  a  dis- 
satisfied section  (or  even  faction),  at  variance  to  some  extent 
with  the  governing  body,  and  conscious  of  being  slighted  (vv.  12, 
16,  19).  The  author  of  the  Epistle,  who  is  not  the  brother  of 
Jesus,  but  a  writer  of  about  A.D.  150,  probably  of  the  Eastern 
church,  demands  a  suppression  of  this  heresy,  partly  by  gentle 
means,  and  partly  with  a  certain  violence,  and  partly  by  the 
middle  course  of  a  diboriminating  forgiveness  (vv.  22,  23).  Simi- 
larly he  exhorts  his  readers  to  retain  the  faith  that  has  been 
delivered  to  them  (vv.  3,  20).   The  Epistle  of  Jude  is  not  known 


220  THE  EPISTLE  OF  JUDE. 

in  the  ancient  cliurch  until  the  end  of  the  second  century,  and 
even  then  it  was  not  universally  acknowledged. 

In  regard  to  the  attitude  and  position  of  the  writer  himself, 
we  can  only  say  that  he  is  a  champion  of  the  traditional  ecclesi- 
astical faith  against  the  heretical  teachers  whom  he  describes, 
and  that  he  was  well  acquainted  with  the  extra-biblical  Jewish 
literature,  the  Book  of  Enoch,  which  he  quotes  as  holy  Scripture 
(vv.  14,  15),  and  the  Assumption  of  Moses,  which  he  makes  use 
of  in  ver.  9.  His  zeal  against  the  Gnostic  heresy,  fiery  as  it  is, 
is  tempered  by  a  certain  evangelical  mildness  (vv.  22,  23). 

After  the  address  (1,  2),  the  occasion  of  the  composition  is 
stated,  namely,  the  dangerous  heresy  of  libertine  Gnosticism 
(3,  4).  The  mention  of  divine  judgment  (5 — 7)  leads  the  way 
to  a  description  of  these  heretics  (8 — 16),  and  then  the  orthodox 
Christians  are  shown  how  they  must  conduct  themselves  with 
regard  to  them  (17 — 23).  The  short  Epistle  then  closes  with  a 
doxology  (24,  25). 


THE  EPISTLE  OF  JUDE.  ^ 


1,  2.  Salutation. 
1.  Eead,  "  Judas,  a  servant  of  Jesus  Christ  and  a  brother  of 
James,  unto  the  called  that  are  beloved  in  God  and  preserved 
in  [or  "for"]  Jesus  Christ." — Brother  of  James:  i.e.  one  of  the 
brothers  of  Jesus  (comp.  Matt.  xiii.  55  ;  Mark  vi.  3). 

3,  4.  Occasion  of  the  Eijistle. 

3.  Read,  "Beloved,  when  I  was  taking  all  diligent  care  to 
write  to  you  concerning  our  common  salvation,"  &c. — Once  = 
"  once  for  all." 

4.  Denying  the  only  Lord  God,  &c.,  should  be  "denying  the 
only  Master,  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ." — Here  it  is  already  indi- 
cated that  the  opponents  of  the  traditional  faith  are  free-thinking 
Gnostics,  who  deny  the  only  God  of  the  universe  and  Jesus 
Christ  (comp.  ver.  25),  and  turn  Christian  grace  into  an  aban- 
doned life.  The  denial  of  Jesus  Christ  is  not  to  be  understood 
as  if  the  false  teachers  refused  to  recognize  Jesus  as  Christ  in 
any  way ;  in  that  case  they  would  not  be  Christian  heretics  at 
all.  The  meaning  must  be  (as  in  1  John  ii.  22),  that  they  dis- 
tinguished in  Gnostic  fashion  between  the  personality  of  Jesus 
and  the  personality  of  Christ. 

6 — 7.   Warning  judgments  of  God  from  the  earliest  ages. 

5.  Eead,  "  I  wish  to  remind  you,  as  you  know  all  these  things, 
once  for  all,  that  the  Lord  having  saved  a  people  out  of  Egypt, 
a  second  time  destroyed  them  that  believed  not." — The  words 
"  a  second  time  "  contain  an  implied  back  reference  to  the  deluge, 
when  the  unbelievers  were  destroyed  for  the  first  time  (comp. 
1  Pet.  i.  20 ;  2  Pet.  ii.  5).  After  the  migration  from  Egypt,  God 
destroyed  in  the  wilderness  the  people  who  had  been  delivered 
(comp.  Num.  xiv.  35  sq.). 

6.  Piead,  "  And  the  angels  which  kept  not  their  own  dominion, 


222  JUDE.  [6—15 

but  left  their  own  habitation,  he  hath  kept  unto  the  judgment  of 
the  great  day  in  everlasting  chains  under  darkness." 

7.  In  like  manner :  i.  e.  like  the  angels  referred  to  in  ver.  6, 
who  formed  connections  with  the  daughters  of  men  (Gen.  vi.  1 
sqq.). — Strange  (lit.  "another")  Jlesh:  i.e.  were  guilty  of  unna- 
tural sins. 

8 — 16.  The  false  teachers. 

8.  Read,  "  Similarly  these  also,  dreaming,  defile  the  flesh :"  a 
reference  to  lascivious  dreams  (conip.  Is.  Ivi.  10). — The  despising 
of  dominion  is  the  degrading  of  the  "  Lord"  (i.e.  the  God  of  the 
Old  Testament)  to  the  rank  of  a  subordinate  divine  being. — 
And  speak  evil  of  dignities  should  be  "  and  rail  at  glories."  These 
"glories"  are  the  high  angels  of  the  God  of  the  Old  Testament, 
which  the  Gnostics  judged  in  a  manner  corresponding  to  their 
judgment  of  God. 

9.  Accusation  should  be  "judgment." 

10.  [Speak  evil  should  be  "  blaspheme"  or  "  rail  against :" 
same  word  as  in  vv.  8,  9.] — The  Gnostic  false  teachers  of  the 
free-thinking  school  rail  against  the  higher  things  which  they 
know  not  (but  think  they  know).  In  lower  material  things 
which  they  know,  however,  they  perish. 

11.  Eead,  "  Woe  unto  them !  For  they  went  in  the  way  of 
Cain,  and  surrendered  themselves  to  the  error  of  Balaam  for  the 
sake  of  reward,  and  perished  in  the  rebellion  of  Korah." 

12.  Eead,  "  These  are  rocks  in  your  love-feasts,  feasting  with 
you,  pasturing  themselves  without  fear;  clouds  without  water 
carried  away  by  the  wind ;  autumnal  trees  without  fruit,  twice 
dead  and  rooted  up." — It  seems  that  the  false  teachers  still 
take  part  in  the  Christian  love-feasts,  but  they  "  pasture  them- 
selves," i.e.  they  separate  themselves  from  the  lawful  shepherd 
or  bishop. 

13.  The  "  wandering  stars  for  which  the  blackness  of  darkness 
hath  been  reserved  for  ever  "  remind  us  of  the  Book  of  Enoch,  in 
which  seven  stars  of  heaven  are  chained  together  for  punishment 
(xxi.  2),  and  fallen  stars  (Ixxxvi.  1  sq.,  Ixxxviii.  1,  xc.  21)  appear 
in  punishment. 

14.  15.  Enoch  also  the  seventh  from  Adam:  comp.  Gen.  v.  21. 
— [Cometh  luith  ten  thousands  of  his  saints :  strictly,  "  came  with 
(or  amid)  his  holy  myriads."] — The  passage  here  quoted  is  to  be 


15—23]  JUDE.  .      223 

found  in  the  Ethiopic  Book  of  Enoch  i.  9  :  "  And  behold  he 
conieth  with  myriads  of  his  holy  ones  to  pass  judgment  upon 
them,  and  to  destroy  the  wicked,  and  to  punish  all  flesh  for  all 
that  the  sinners  and  ungodly  have  done  and  committed  against 
him." 

16.  This  discontented  grumbling  and  arrogant  speech,  with 
the  expression  in  ver.  12,  "  pasturing  themselves,"  points  to  dis- 
satisfaction with  their  position  in  the  community.  The  false 
teachers  who  gave  themselves  out  to  be  spiritual  men  (ver.  19), 
and  uttered  great-swelling  speeches,  found  themselves  passed 
over  and  disregarded. — Having  men's  persons  in  admiration,  &c. 
"  Having  respect  of  persons  for  the  sake  of  advantage." 

17 — 23.  The  attitude  of  the  orthodox  Cho'istians  towards  the  false 

teachers. 

17,  18.  These  prophetic  utterances  on  the  part  of  the  apostles 
may  be  found  in  Eev.  ii.  iii. ;  2  Thess.  ii.  3  sq.,  iv.  3.  —  Of  the 
apostles  should  be  "  by  the  apostles." 

19.  Eead,  "  These  are  they  who  make  separations,  having  a 
soul,  not  having  a  spirit." — The  Gnostic  teachers  exalted  them- 
selves, as  the  spiritual  men,  over  the  ordinary  Christians,  as 
merely  psychic  men  (animated  simply  by  a  soul  and  not  by  the 
spirit).     The  writer  here  exactly  reverses  this. 

20.  ffohj  Ghost :  "  Holy  Spirit." 

22,  23.  Eead, "  And  on  some  have  mercy  when  they  are  in 
doubt,  and  some  save  snatching  them  out  of  the  fire.  On  some, 
however,  have  mercy  in  fear,  hating  even  the  garment  spotted 
by  the  flesh." — The  followers  of  the  false  teachers  are  to  be 
treated  with  gentleness  if  they  are  simply  in  doubt.  Others  are 
to  be  snatched  from  the  fire  of  destruction ;  to  others  again  mercy 
is  to  be  shown  "with  fear,"  i.e.  with  care.  The  garment  spotted 
by  the  flesh  is  explained  by  ver.  8.  The  immoral  life  of  the 
false  teachers  is  to  be  regarded  with  the  uttermost  hatred.  [There 
is  a  considerable  variation  in  the  readings  of  the  MSS.,  and 
some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  proper  translation  of  these 
two  verses.  Lachmann,  Tischendorf,  Alford  and  Tregelles,  sup- 
ported throughout  by  two  of  the  oldest  MSS.,  and  in  the  greater 
part  by  others  also,  read,  "  And  some  convict  when  they  are  at 
variance  (i.e.  "contending  with  you,"  Alf.),  and  others  save, 


224  JUDE.  [23—25 

snatching  them  out  the  fire,  and  on  some  have  mercy  with  fear," 
&c.] 

24,  25.  Conclusion. 

[24.  There  is  one  old  MS.  that  reads  "  them"  instead  oiyou  in 
this  verse.] 

25.  Eead,  "  To  the  only  God  our  Saviour,  honour  and  majesty 
before  all  eternity,  and  now  and  unto  all  eternity." — "To  the 
only  God"  (comp.  ver.  4),  in  opposition  to  the  many  divine 
beings  which  the  Gnostics  set  forth. — God  as  our  Saviour:  comp. 
1  Tim.  i.  1,  ii.  3  ;  Tit.  i.  3,  ii.  10,  iii.  4. — [Here,  again,  there  is  some 
difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  correct  reading.  -  Lachmann, 
Tischendorf,  Alford  and  Tregelles,  supported  by  the  four  oldest 
MSS.,  read,  "  To  the  only  God  our  Saviour,  through  Jesus  Christ 
our  Lord,  glory,  majesty,  dominion  and  power,  before  every  age, 
and  now  and  unto  all  the  ages."] 


THE    REVELATION   OF   JOHN. 


1.  Occasion  and  Purpose  of  the  Book. 

The  New  Testament  contains  one  prophetic  book,  the  Apoca- 
lypse. This  Greek  word  signifies  a  revelation,  or  uncovering, 
and  was  used  by  the  later  Jews  to  denote  especially  the  glorious 
appearance  of  the  Messiah  coming  from  the  right  hand  of  God, 
which  they  expected.  Hence  it  came  about  that  the  name  was 
applied  not  only  to  the  appearance  of  the  Messiah,  but  to  any 
writing  that  treated  of  it,  and  such  a  writing  was  called  simply 
an  Apocalypse.  The  earliest  composition  of  this  kind  is  the 
Old  Testament  Book  of  Daniel,  which,  however,  was  not  written 
by  a  prophet  of  that  name  living  at  the  Babylonian  court,  but 
by  an  unknown  author  of  the  Maccabean  age  (about  170  B.C.). 

That  the  Eevelation  of  John  belongs  to  the  first  century  after 
the  birth  of  Christ  is  beyond  all  doubt.  In  that  age  the  whole 
of  Christendom  lived  in  the  conviction  that  Jesus,  who  had  been 
exalted  to  heaven,  and  whom  they  revered  as  the  Messiah,  would 
return  in  the  immediate  future,  would  raise  the  dead,  hold  a 
judgment  over  the  human  race,  and  then,  with  his  own  faithful 
followers,  establish  the  eternal  kingdom  of  God.  With  this  belief, 
the  roots  of  which  are  to  be  found  in  Judaism,  was  connected 
the  idea  of  the  Messianic  woes,  which  the  Christians  likewise 
appropriated  from  the  Jewish  theology.  Before  the  regeneration 
of  all  things,  which  was  to  begin  with  the  advent  of  the  Messiah, 
it  was  expected  that  there  would  be  great  convulsions  in  heaven 
and  on  earth.  Then  the  whole  visible  creation  shall  be  shaken 
through  and  through  by  the  pangs  of  labour.   Sun  and  moon  lose 

VOL.  III.  Q 


226  TEE  REVELATION  OF  JOHX. 

tlieir  brilliancy.  The  stars  fall  from  heaven.  War,  tumult,  famine 
and  pestilence,  fall  upon  mankind.  This  period  Satan  seeks  with 
all  his  powers  to  avail  himself  of,  well  knowing  that  now  his 
dominion  will  speedily  come  to  an  end.  Not  satisjfied  with  stirring 
up  the  ungodly  world  to  the  persecution  of  the  believers,  he 
even  ventures  to  make  himself  incarnate  in  a  human  personality, 
even  as  God  became  a  man  in  Jesus,  and  so,  as  the  adversary 
and  caricature  of  the  true  Messiah  {antichrist),  to  demand  divine 
honours  for  himself.  But  in  so  doing  he  has  reached  the  summit 
of  his  power,  for  now  Christ  with  his  hosts  descends,  from  heaven, 
overcomes  the  antichrist  with  all  his  following,  and  consigns  him 
to  eternal  perdition. 

A  Christian  of  the  second  half  of  the  first  century,  filled  with 
such  expectations,  watching  with  attentive  eyes  the  course  of 
the  affairs  of  the  world,  could  not  fail  to  be  strengthened  in  the 
conviction  "that  the  time  was  at  hand,"  and  "that  the  Lord 
would  soon  come  with  his  reward  to  give  to  every  man  according 
to  his  work"  (Eev.  i.  3,  xxii.  12). 

The  whole  of  the  known  world  was  at  that  time  under  the 
sceptre  of  the  Eoman  emperor.  Two  emperors,  Tiberius  (A.D. 
14 — 37)  and  Caligula  (A.D.  37 — 41),  had  already  disgraced  the 
throne  by  unheard-of  cruelty  and  blasphemy ;  but  Nero,  who  in 
the  year  54  succeeded  the  feeble  Claudius,  surpassed  in  unna- 
tural depravity  all  his  predecessors.  During  his  reign  of  fourteen 
years,  his  mother,  his  step-brother,  two  wives  and  innumerable 
other  persons,  fell  a  sacrifice  to  his  brutality.  He  excited  the 
detestation  of  the  Christians  especially  by  the  terrible  persecution 
to  which  he  subjected  them.  In  the  year  64,  the  greater  part  of 
the  city  of  Eome  was  destroyed  by  fire.  The  popular  voice 
boldly  declared  that  the  tyrant  himself  was  the  originator  of  the 
fire,  and  all  his  endeavours  to  prove  this  rumour  false  were  in 
vain.  At  last  he  declared  that  the  Christians  living  in  Eome 
were  the  real  authors  of  the  fire,  and  caused  a  great  number  of 
them  to  be  hunted  out  and  put  to  a  martyr's  death.  From  that 
time,  the  name  of  Eome  was  as  hateful  to  the  Christians  as  the 


THE  REVELATION  OF  JO  EN.  227 

name  of  Babylon  had  been  to  the  Jews  after  they  had  been 
carried  away  out  of  the  Holy  Land  into  captivity  there.  Ear- 
nestly did  the  confessors  of  Jesus  now  long  for  the  day  when 
the  judgment  of  the  Lord  should  come  upon  this  infamous  and 
idolatrous  city. 

That  this  day  could  not  now  be  far  distant,  might  be  inferred, 
it  was  supposed,  from  another  sign  of  the  times.  In  the  year  66, 
the  Jews,  unable  any  longer  to  endure  the  tyranny  of  the  Eoman 
governor,  armed  themselves  and  began  a  bloody  war  against  their 
oppressors.  It  was  impossible,  however,  for  any  heroism  to  suc- 
ceed in  so  unequal  a  struggle,  and  after  many  thousand  Jews 
had  fallen  in  a  numerous  succession  of  encounters,  the  Eoman 
general  Vespasian  advanced  against  Jerusalem,  with  the  inten- 
tion of  taking  the  chief  city  of  the  enemy  and  so  making  an 
end  of  the  war.  It  may  easily  be  understood  that  Jews  and 
Jewish  Christians  alike  watched  the  siege  of  Jerusalem  with 
feverish  anxiety.  The  idea  that  it  was  possible  that  God  should 
deliver  up  to  the  Gentiles  the  holy  city  and  the  temple  dedi- 
cated to  his  honour,  was  intolerable  to  them.  The  Jewish 
Christians  comforted  themselves  with  the  hope  that  perhaps  He 
had  only  threatened  the  Israelites  with  this  severe  visitation  in 
order  to  move  the  hardened  people  to  repentance  and  faith  in 
the  gospel,  and  that  when  this  purpose  was  attained  He  would 
undoubtedly  stretch  forth  His  saving  hand,  and  with  the  thunders 
of  His  judgment  dash  to  pieces  the  Gentiles  who  had  sought  to 
lay  sacrilegious  hands  upon  the  sanctuary. 

Ere  long  another  rumour  spread  through  the  Eoman  empire, 
which  was  peculiarly  adapted  to  dispel  the  last  doubts  and  to 
make  it  plain  that  the  Lord  stood  already  at  the  door.  The 
armies  in  Gaul  and  Spain  had  rebelled  against  Nero  and  pro- 
claimed their  well-tried  general  Galba  as  emperor.  Betrayed  in 
his  own  palace,  and  too  cowardly  to  resist,  Nero  fled  from  the 
capital  to  the  country  estate  of  one  of  his  freed-men,  and,  when 
his  pursuers  approached,  stabbed  himself  in  the  throat  with  the 
assistance  of  one  of  his  servants.     Such  was  the  account  given 

Q  2 


228  THE  REVELATION   OF  JOHN. 

of  his  death,  but  as  it  took  place  iu  secret  the  question  soon 
arose  whether  this  monster  of  cruelty  was  really  dead ;  whether 
he  had  not  simply  hidden  away  in  order  to  gather  new  strength 
and  then  turn  again  upon  his  enemies,  breathing  revenge  and 
slaughter.  By-and-by  the  mound  under  which  he  was  said 
to  rest  was  found  repeatedly  adorned  with  fresh  flowers.  His 
image  was  set  up  on  the  public  rostra,  with  decrees  bearing  his 
name  and  threatening  his  speedy  return  and  the  severest  punish- 
ment of  his  enemies.  Gradually  the  vague  suspicions  as  to  his 
actual  place  of  concealment  took  a  definite  form.  It  had  before 
been  prophesied  that  if  he  should  be  one  day  hurled  from  the 
imperial  throne,  he  should  hold  dominion  over  the  East.  And 
after  the  rebellion  arose  he  still  cherished  the  intention  of  taking 
refuge  among  the  Parthians  beyond  the  river  Euphrates.  Hence 
the  report  naturally  arose  that  he  had  actually  carried  out  this 
design,  and  that  he  would  very  shortly  return  with  an  innume- 
rable host  of  these  hereditary  enemies  of  Rome,  and  wreak  terrible 
vengeance  on  the  imperial  city.  It  is  easy  to  understand  how  this 
report  found  ready  acceptance  among  the  Christians.  The  horrible 
cruelties  practised  by  Nero  upon  the  confessors  of  Jesus  were 
themselves  sufficient  ground  for  regarding  him  as  the  incarnate 
antichrist.  If  he  was  able  to  defy  death  itself,  there  must  with- 
out doubt  be  some  superhuman  Satanic  power  at  work  in  him. 
In  addition  to  all  this,  during  the  preceding  decades  the  Messianic 
woes  had  become  louder  and  more  unmistakable.  The  Eoman 
empire  had  been  disturbed  incessantly  with  bloody  wars,  first  in 
one  quarter  and  then  in  another.  A  famine  had  visited  Judea. 
A  pestilence  had  laid  Italy  waste,  and  in  Eome  itself  had  carried 
away  thirty  thousand  persons.  Terrible  devastations  had  been 
caused  by  earthquakes,  which  had  been  felt  with  especial  severity 
in  Asia  Minor,  where  out  of  the  seven  cities  named  in  the  open- 
ing of  the  Eevelation  (i.  11),  only  two,  viz.  Smyrna  and  Pergamos, 
had  escaped. 

Einally,  the  belief  that  the  return  of  Jesus  would  take  place 
in  the  immediate  future  was  further  confirmed  by  the  declarations 


THE  REVELATION  OF  JOUN.  229 

of  the  Book  of  Daniel,  which,  dealing  as  it  did  almost  entirely 
with  the  Messianic  age,  was  more  industriously  read  by  the 
ancient  Christians  than  any  other  book  of  the  Old  Testament. 
According  to  the  prophecies  of  this  book,  the  oppressions  which 
fell  upon  the  Jewish  nation,  and  the  God-forsaken  state  in  which 
it  was  left  under  the  tyranny  of  the  Syrian  king  Antiochus 
Epiphanes,  were  to  endure  for  "a  time  and  times  and  half  a 
time,"  that  is  to  say,  according  to  the  most  simple  and  natural 
interpretation,  three  and  a  half  years  (Dan.  vii.  25,  xii.  7) ;  but 
this  period  had  long  since  passed,  and  yet  the  affliction  of  Israel 
had  not  come  to  an  end.  If,  however,  the  author  of  the  Book  of 
Daniel  was  a  genuine  prophet  possessed  by  the  spirit  of  God, 
then  his  prophecy  must  be  fulfilled  in  some  way  or  other.  A 
different  explanation  was  therefore  sought.  The  saying  in  ques- 
tion was  interpreted  as  applying  to  the  new  "  people  of  the  cove- 
nant," the  Christian  community,  which  had  taken  the  place  of 
the  old  people  of  the  covenant;  and  the  "times"  were  regarded, 
not  as  single  years,  but  as  periods  of  ten  years  each,  just  as 
Daniel  elsewhere  speaks  of  "  weeks,"  meaning  periods  of  seven 
years  and  not  of  seven  days  (Dan.  ix.  24  sqq.)-  ^^  ^^^i^  case  the 
prophecy  could  only  refer  to  the  latter  part  of  the  seventh  decade 
of  the  Christian  era,  which  was  just  three  and  a  half  decades 
after  the  crucifixion  of  Jesus,  with  which  the  forsaking  and  the 
oppressions  of  the  Christians  had  begun. 

Such,  generally  speaking,  were  the  ideas  of  the  author  of  the 
Eevelation ;  and  it  was  the  desire  to  confer  a  benefit  upon  other 
Christians  by  communicating  to  them  the  result  of  his  own 
careful  consideration  of  the  signs  of  the  time,  which  led  him 
to  write  his  book.  Accordingly,  the  purpose  of  the  book  is  to 
instruct  the  Christian  communities  of  Asia  Minor,  and  indirectly 
the  whole  of  Christendom,  concerning  the  return  of  the  Lord 
and  the  events  which  were  to  precede  it,  to  strengthen  them  for 
the  impending  sufferings  and  afflictions  by  calling  attention  to 
the  glory  of  the  Messianic  kingdom,  and  to  admonish  them  to 
put  away  the  moral  offences  which  still  clung  to  them,  that 


230  THE  REVELATION  OF  JOHN. 

the  Lord  at  his  coming  to  receive  his  own  might  find  them  well 
prepared,  and  vouchsafe  to  them  participation  in  his  kingdom. 

2.  Contents. 

The  disclosures  which  John  makes  to  his  readers  may  be 
summed  up  somewhat  as  follows  :  We  are  already  living  in  the 
last  times,  and  ere  long  the  period  assigned  by  the  Book  of  Daniel 
will  have  passed.  But  there  are  still  many  things  that  must 
first  happen.  Terrible  plagues  will  visit  the  Christ-hating  human 
race,  and  only  the  elect  will  be  spared.  The  defiant  pride  of  the 
hardened  Gentile  world  these  plagues  will  fail  indeed  to  break 
down,  but  surely  the  Jewish  people,  after  the  Eomans  have  con- 
quered all  Jerusalem  except  the  Temple  itself,  will  by  these 
judgments  of  God  be  terrified  out  of  their  false  security  and 
yield  to  the  gospel.  The  Christian  community  will  be  sorely 
oppressed  by  Satan  and  his  ministers,  but  it  will  be  marvellously 
preserved  by  the  Divine  protection.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
impious  imperial  capital,  the  idolatrous  Kome,  with  her  hatred 
of  the  Christians,  must  vanish  from  the  face  of  the  earth ;  and 
her  own  former  ruler,  Nero,  who  was  supposed  to  be  dead,  and 
who  shall  come  hastening  with  the  princes  of  the  Parthians 
from  his  concealment  beyond  the  Euphrates,  is  the  very  one 
who  is  destined  to  execute  this  terrible  sentence  upon  her. 
After  this  he  will  manifest  himself  as  the  incarnate  antichrist 
by  demanding  divine  honours  for  himself,  slaying  with  the  sword 
all  who  refuse  to  grant  them,  and  drawing  after  him  an  innu- 
merable horde  of  hireling  admirers  and  blasphemers.  Dying 
prophets,  both  among  Jews  and  Gentiles,  with  deceitful  words 
and  astounding  magic  arts,  will  win  over  a  great  part  of  the 
inhabitants  of  the  earth  to  the  side  of  the  antichrist,  excite  him 
to  a  bloody  persecution  of  the  faithful  disciples  of  the  true 
Messiah,  and  collect  around  him  as  his  allies  the  princes  of  all 
the  nations  that  are  subject  to  the  Eomans.  Thus  prepared,  he 
attacks  the  holy  city  of  Jerusalem ;  but  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  city  his  destiny  overtakes  him,  for  Christ  comes  with  his 


THE  REVELATION  OF  JOHN.  231 

hosts  from  heaven,  destroys  the  hostile  arniy  in  a  bloody  battle, 
and  consigns  the  antichrist,  with  his  lying  prophets,  to  the 
sulphurous  pit  which  is  prepared  for  all  the  wicked.  Then  the 
victorious  Messiah  calls  to  life  again  those  who  have  been 
slain  for  his  name's  sake,  in  order  that  he  may  rule  peacefully 
with  them  for  a  long  series  of  years  in  Jerusalem.  After  this, 
barbarian  hordes,  stirred  up  by  Satan,  will  lay  siege  to  the  holy 
city  in  numberless  multitudes;  but  they  will  be  quickly  de- 
stroyed by  the  direct  intervention  of  God.  When  Satan  has 
been  similarly  cast  into  the  sulphurous  pit,  the  old  order  of  the 
world  terminates  with  the  resurrection  of  all  the  dead  and  the 
final  judgment.  Heaven  and  earth  are  marvellously  renewed, 
and  in  the  new  Jerusalem,  that  descends  from  heaven,  the  eternal 
kingdom  of  God  and  Christ  begins. 

These  revelations  are  made  by  the  seer  to  his  readers,  how- 
ever, not  in  insipid,  didactic  discourses,  but  in  the  form  of  visions, 
in  which  a  series  of  symbolic  figures,  representing  the  important 
powers  in  the  development  of  the  last  days,  passes  before  his 
eyes.  As  this  is  the  traditional  form  for  all  apocalyptic  writings, 
a  form  which  suggested  itself  irresistibly  to  John  from  the  very 
first,  the  question  whether  he  actually  saw  all  the  visions  which 
he  describes  must  be  answered  in  the  negative.  They  are  the 
images,  rather,  of  a  powerful  imagination.  He  believed  in  them 
only  in  the  same  degree  in  which  a  dramatist  believes  in  the 
creations  of  his  own  mind.  Both  alike  believe  in  the  reality  of 
the  ideas  which  they  present  in  a  symbolic  and  allegoric,  i.e.  in 
a  poetic,  dress. 

The  symbolic  figures  which  we  meet  with  in  the  Eevelation 
are  the  following : 

1.  The  Ilessiah  appears  as  a  high-priest  (i.  13  sqq.),  and  after- 
wards as  a  slaughtered  lamb,  with  seven  horns  and  seven  eyes 
(v.  6,  after  Is.  liii.  7) ;  as  a  new-born  man  child,  who  shall  pasture 
all  the  Gentiles  with  a  rod  of  iron  (xii.  5,  after  Ps.  ii.  7  sqq.)  ;  as 
the  son  of  man  coming  upon  the  clouds  of  heaven  (xiv.  14,  and 
comp.  also  i.  13,  after  Dan.  vii.  13) ;  and,  finally,  as  a  general 


232  THE  REVELATION  OF  JOHN. 

liastening  to  victory  and  arrayed  as  for  a  Eomau  triumph  (vi.  2, 
xix.  11). 

2.  The  coi7imu7iity  of  God  is  represented  as  a  woman  adorned 
with  the  sun  and  moon  and  a  crown  of  twelve  stars,  from  whom 
the  Messiah  springs  (ch.  xii.),  but  who  is  also  the  bride  of  the 
Messiah  (xix.  7  sq.,  xxi.  9  sqq.,  xxii.  17). 

3.  Satan  is  represented  (after  Gen.  iii.  1  sqq.)  as  a  serpent  or 
dragon  with  seven  heads  and  ten  horns  (xii.  3  sqq.), 

4.  The  power  of  the  world,  i.  e.  the  Roman  emjnre,  which  is  in 
Satan's  service,  appears  (after  Dan.  vii.  3  sqq.)  as  a  beast  having 
likewise  seven  heads  and  ten  horns  (xiii.  1  sqq.) ;  the  city  of 
Rome,  which  rules  over  this  empire,  as  a  meretricious  woman 
enthroned  upon  the  beast. 

5.  The  antichrist,  Nero,  inasmuch  as  all  the  godlessness  and 
all  the  hostility  to  the  Christians  that  was  contained  in  the 
Eoman  empire  had  been  incorporated  in  him,  is  represented  by 
the  beast  above  mentioned  (xi.  7,  xvii.  8, 11),  and  also,  inasmuch 
as  he  was  the  fifth  Koman  emperor,  by  the  fifth  head  of  this 
beast  (xiii.  3,  xvii.  9  sq.). 

C.  The  whole  body  oi  false  projjhets  of  that  age,  both  Jewish 
and  Gentile,  appears  in  the  form  of  a  second  beast,  in  league 
with  the  first,  lili;e  to  a  lamb  in  appearance,  but  speaking  like 
a  serpent  (xiii.  11  sqq.).  In  other  passages  the  false  prophet 
appears  without  disguise  in  the  place  of  this  beast  (xvi.  13,  xix.  20, 
XX.  10). 

As  regards  its  general  arrangement,  the  book  may  be  divided 
into  three  parts,  the  Prologue  (i. — iii.),  the  Apocalypse  proper 
(iv. — xxii.  5),  and  the  Epilogue  (xxii.  6 — 21). 

The  prologue  consists  of  the  title  and  superscription  of  the 
whole  (i.  1 — 3),  the  dedication  to  the  seven  Christian  commu- 
nities of  Asia  Minor  (i.  4 — 8),  the  introductory  vision  (i  9 — 20), 
and  seven  letters  to  the  seven  communities  (ii.  iii.). 

The  revelation  proper  is  divided  into  two  parts  by  the  change 
of  scene,  which  is  first  in  heaven,  and  then  (from  ch.  x.  onwards) 
on  earth.    It  is  gradually  developed  through  a  number  of  stages 


THE  REVELATION  OF  JOHN.  233 

within  a  framework,  as  it  were,  of  the  sacred  numbers,  three  and 
seven.  Seven  seals  are  broken ;  but  this  is  not  the  immediate 
prelude,  as  might  be  supposed,  to  the  final  judgment,  for  there 
then  follow  seven  trumpets,  the  last  of  which  again  introduces, 
not  the  final  judgment,  but  the  seven  vials  of  wrath.  Thus  we 
have  three  sets  of  seven  scenes  each  in  the  development  of  the 
Eevelation,  and  each  set  is  arranged  strictly  after  the  same  pat- 
tern. The  first  four  scenes  are  each  time  most  closely  connected 
with  one  another  (vi.  1 — 7,  viii.  7 — 12,  xvi.  1 — 9) ;  the  fifth  and 
sixth  hang  more  loosely  together  (vi.  9 — 17,  ix.,  xvi.  10 — 12), 
and  are  separated  by  intermediate  proceedings  from  the  seventh, 
which  is  itself  introduced  in  each  set  of  scenes  by  a  somewhat 
lengthy  preparatory  development  (vii.,  x.  1 — xi.  14,  xvi.  13 — 16). 
Where  the  length  of  the  scene  allows  of  sub-divisions,  these  are 
formed  by  means  of  threes.  This  is  especially  marked  in  the 
description  of  the  final  contest  and  the  judgment.  The  seventh 
trumpet  introduces  three  different  things  :  the  description  of 
the  enemy,  the  prophetic  prelude,  and  the  decisive  conflict. 
There  are  three  enemies:  the  devil  (xii.  3 — 17),  the  Eoman 
imperial  power  (xiii.  1 — 10),  and  the  false  prophets  (xiii.  11 — 17). 
Three  angels  announce  in  the  prelude  the  fall  of  the  imperial 
capital  (xiv.  6 — 11,  14 — 20),  and  the  decisive  conflict  is  divided 
into  three  scenes  (xvii.,  xix.  11 — 21,  xx.  7 — 10).  Hence  the 
whole  arrangement  of  the  Eevelation  has  evidently  been  thought 
out  and  planned  with  extraordinary  care. 

3.  Date  and  Place  of  Composition,    Authokship, 

The  date  of  the  book  now  under  our  consideration  may  be 
fixed  with  a  certainty  seldom  attainable  in  the  case  of  other 
ancient  writings.  Evidently  it  is  between  June  9th,  68,  and 
August  10th,  70 ;  the  former  of  these  being  the  day  of  Nero's 
death,  and  the  latter  the  day  on  which  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem, 
which  John  had  hoped  to  see  spared,  was  reduced  to  ashes  when 
the  city  was  destroyed  by  the  Eomans.  And  since  the  sixth 
emperor,  of  whom  John  says  that  he  "is"  (xvii,  10),  can  be  no 


234  TEE  REVELATION  OF  JOHN. 

other  than  Nero's  successor  Galba,  who  was  murdered  on  the 
15th  of  January,  69,  the  Eevelation  must  have  been  written 
within  the  reign  of  that  emperor,  which  lasted  for  a  period  of 
rather  less  than  seven  months. 

The  ijlace  of  composition  was  somewhere  in  Asia  Minor. 
According  to  his  own  statement,  the  apocalyptic  writer  was 
upon  the  island  of  Patmos  (i.  9),  over  against  Ephesus,  and  he 
dedicates  his  book  to  the  Ephesian  and  six  other  communities 
of  Asia  Minor,  of  the  position  and  circumstances  of  which  he 
has  such  accurate  knowledge  as  can  only  result  from  personal 
acquaintance.  Accordingly,  the  probability  is  altogether  in 
favour  of  the  ecclesiastical  tradition  which  represents  the  Eeve- 
lation as  springing  from  Ephesus. 

The  personality  of  the  author,  then,  is  the  only  matter  that 
remains  to  be  determined.  He  calls  himself  John  (i.  1,  4,  9, 
xxii.  8),  and  there  is  no  indication  whatever  that  he  was  laying 
claim  to  a  name  that  did  not  belong  to  him.  The  earliest  tradi- 
tion uniformly  represents  him  as  the  apostle  John,  the  son  of 
Zebedee  and  Salome,  concerning  whom  we  have  the  evidence  of 
unimpeachable  witnesses  that  he  spent  the  latter  part  of  his  life 
in  Ephesus.  The  opposition  to  this  tradition  which  afterwards 
arose  is  of  no  weight,  inasmuch  as  it  does  not  rest  upon  any 
foundation  of  facts,  but  sprang  from  the  increasing  difficulty 
which  readers  found  in  adapting  themselves  to  the  ideas  of  the 
book,  especially  in  regard  to  the  stumbling-block  which  presented 
itself  in  the  doctrine  of  the  millennium  or  Messianic  reign  of  a 
thousand  years.  In  more  recent  times,  the  apostolic  origin  of 
the  book  has  frequently  been  disputed  on  the  ground  that  it  is 
impossible  that  the  Fourth  Gospel  and  the  Eevelation  can  both 
be  the  work  of  one  and  the  same  author,  the  character  of  each  of 
the  writings  being  far  too  diverse  from  that  of  the  other.  Correct 
as  this  statement  is,  it  must  not  be  used,  however,  against  the 
Eevelation,  which  can  produce  far  stronger  evidence  in  support 
of  its  claim  to  be  the  work  of  the  apostle  John  than  the  Fourth 
Gospel,  which  in  any  case  is  not  from  the  hand  of  this  apostle. 


TEE  REVELATION  OF  JOHN.  235 

In  the  most  recent  times,  however,  the  apostolic  origin  of  the 
Eevelation  has  been  doubted  even  by  biblical  scholars  who  do 
not  regard  the  Fourth  Gospel  as  Johannine.  Their  chief  grounds 
are  as  follows :  The  apocalyptic  writer  never  describes  himself 
as  an  apostle,  and  indeed  he  speaks  of  the  twelve  immediate 
disciples  of  Jesus  in  a  manner  in  which  he  would  scarcely  have 
spoken  of  them  if  he  had  himself  belonged  to  their  circle  (xviii.  20, 
xxi.  14).  Then  there  are  no  traces  whatever  in  the  book  of  the 
intimate  relation  to  Jesus  occupied  by  the  disciple  John,  together 
with  Peter  and  James.  The  figure  of  Jesus  himself  is  so  little 
human  and  individual,  that  it  cannot  be  drawn  by  the  hand  of 
a  disciple  who  had  lived  for  years  never  to  be  forgotten  with  his 
Lord  and  Master.  The  Eevelation,  moreover,  displays  an  amount 
of  erudition  and  literary  skill  which  would  be  more  credilJe  in 
a  trained  theological  writer  than  in  a  simple  fisherman  of  Galilee, 
such  as  John  was.  Finally,  there  are  many  who  even  declare 
that  the  very  tradition  of  the  apostle  John's  residence  in  Ephesus 
is  unhistorical,  and  has  arisen  from  a  confusion  between  the 
apostle  and  a  contemporary  of  the  same  name,  the  presbyter 
John,  to  whom  even  in  ancient  times  the  Eevelation  was  occa- 
sionally ascribed. 

But,  though  several  of  these  objections  are  well  worthy  of 
consideration,  none  of  them  is  conclusive.  The  presbyter  John, 
in  particular,  is  a  figure  of  such  doubtful  historical  reality,  that 
any  appeal  to  him  is  more  likely  to  confuse  than  to  solve  the 
uncertain  problem. 

In  any  case,  it  is  significant  that  the  idea  of  the  character  of 
the  writer  which  we  cannot  fail  to  derive  from  the  Eevelation, 
is  remarkably  like  the  figure  of  the  apostle  John  as  he  appears 
in  the  writings  of  Paul,  the  first  three  Gospels,  and  several  of 
the  earliest  ecclesiastical  writers.  The  most  prudent  and  un- 
assailable answer  to  the  question  of  the  authorship  of  the  Eeve- 
lation will  ever  be,  that  the  writer  was  a  Jewish  Christian  of 
Asia  Minor  named  John,  and  that  there  is  neither  proof  nor 
disproof  of  the  validity  of  the  tradition  which  declares  him  to 
have  been  the  apostle  of  that  name. 


236  tee  revelation  of  john. 

4.  Value  of  the  Book. 

That  the  expectations  of  the  Eevelation  have  not  been  fulfilled, 
requires,  now-a-days,  no  proof  But  this  fact  detracts  nothing 
from  our  estimation  of  this  enigmatical  book,  and  the  effects 
which  have  been  produced  by  it.  We  cannot  but  regret  the 
misuse  which  enthusiasts  and  fanatics  have  made  of  it,  drawing 
from  it,  as  they  supposed,  the  whole  history  of  the  world  and 
the  church  to  the  end  of  time,  and  ever  with  special  ingenuity 
fitting  the  apocalyptic  descriptions  of  the  impious  and  ungodly- 
powers  to  their  own  enemies  for  the  time  being ;  a  delusion, 
which  should  be  relegated  to  a  history  of  human  folly,  and  is 
now  happily  dying  out.  The  Eevelation,  however,  has  not  been 
without  homage  of  a  superior  kind  to  this.  In  times  of  bitter 
persecution,  it  was  a  book  of  consolation  for  the  confessors  of 
Jesus,  who  were  upheld  and  strengthened  by  its  promises.  Some 
of  its  most  powerful  utterances  (e.g.  ii.  10,  iii.  11,  19,  xiv.  13, 
xxi.  4)  have  always  had  an  awakening  and  uplifting  effect  upon 
religious  minds.  And,  finally,  it  has  supplied  both  the  impulse 
and  the  material  requisite  for  the  production  of  lofty  poetic  figures 
and  scenes,  to  not  a  few  poets,  both  mediceval  and  modern,  as,  for 
example,  Dante,  Milton,  Klopstock  and  Schiller. 

While  most  other  writings  of  this  character  fall  into  a  number 
of  disconnected  scenes,  the  Eevelation  of  John  is  distinguished 
by  a  strictly  preserved  unity  and  a  happy  combination  of  the 
various  elements  that  are  worked  up  in  it.  As  it  not  only  equals 
but  even  surpasses  its  Old  Testament  model,  the  Book  of  Daniel, 
we  may  confidently  regard  it  as  the  most  perfect  production  of 
the  Jewish -Christian  apocalyptic  school.  Its  high  historical 
value  is  due  to  the  fact  that  it  is  the  oldest  document  of  Jewish 
Christianity,  and,  next  to  the  genuine  Epistles  of  Paul  and  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  the  oldest  book  in  the  canon  of  the  New 
Testament.  Hence  this  book  and  the  writings  just  mentioned 
are  the  most  important  of  all  sources  for  our  knowledge  of  pri- 
mitive Christianity  as  developed  in  the  generation  immediately 
following  the  departure  of  Jesus. 


THE  EEVELATIOIT  OF  JOHN". 

i. — iii.  Pkologue. 

i.  1 — 3.  Title  and  superscription  of  the  hook,  and  commeiidation  of 
it  to  the  Christian  coimnunities. 

1.  The  thought  that  Christ  received  from  his  Father  all  that 
he  possesses  and  gives  to  his  own,  occurs  also  elsewhere  in  the 
Eevelation  (ii.  27,  iii.  21,  vi.  2,  xx.  4).  Hence  the  subordination 
of  the  Son  to  the  Father  is  undoubtedly  assumed  in  this  book. — 
Ee  =  Jesus  Christ. — Signified  it :  i.  e.  made  it  clear  by  signs  and 
words. — His  servant:  John,  like  Paul  (Kom.  i.  1;  GaL  i.  10 ; 
Pliil.  i.  1)  and  James  (James  i.  1),  calls  himself  a  "  servant  of 
Christ." 

2.  "  Who  testified  to  the  word  of  God  and  to  the  testimony  of 
Jesus  Christ  whatsoever  things  he  saw."  [The  words  hao^e  record 
and  testimony  are  similar  words  in  the  Greek.] — Saw :  The  reve- 
lation was  given  to  him  in  the  form  of  a  vision. 

3.  Blessed  is  he  that  readeth,  &c. :  i.e.  the  reader  and  the  con- 
gregation of  those  that  listen  to  him.  Hence  it  appears  that 
John  intends  his  book  to  be  read  in  the  gatherings  for  public 
worship, 

i,  4 — 8.  Dedication  to  the  seven  Christian  communities  of  Asia 
Minor,  and  short  statement  of  the  theme  of  the  hook. 

4.  Asia  =  Asia  Minor,  in  accordance  with  ancient  usage. 
Besides  the  Christian  communities  here  mentioned,  there  are 
also  others  known  to  us  which  existed  at  that  time  in  Asia  Minor, 
e.g.  at  Colossee  and  Hierapolis  (Col.  iv.  13).  John's  confinement 
of  himself  to  seven  communities  is  explained  by  the  significance 
wdiich  he  attaches  to  the  sacred  number  of  seven. — From  him 
which  is  and  ivhieh  was  and  which  is  to  come :  A  paraphrase  of 
the  Hebrew  divine  name  "Yahveh"  (erroneously  pronounced 
"Jehovah").  The  alteration  of  the  usual  phrase  "which  shall 
be"  into  luhich  is  to  come,  is  occasioned  by  the  reference  to  the 
approaching  advent  of  the  Lord. — The  seven  Spirits :  The  seven 
archangels  who,  according  to  the  later  Jewish  belief,  which  had 


238  REVELATION.  [i.  4 — 10 

its  origin  in  the  doctrines  of  Zoroaster,  surrounded  the  throne  of 
God  (Tob.  xii.  15,  comp.  Zech.  iii.  9,  iv.  10),  [Zech.  iii.  9,  "  Upon 
one  stone  shall  be  seven  eyes,"  i.e.  seven  eyes  shall  watch  over 
it,  i.e.  seven  angels,  which,  according  to  Zech.  iv.  10,  are  as  the 
eyes  of  Yahveh.  In  the  latter  verse  there  is  also  a  reading, 
"  watchers"  for  "  eyes."] 

5.  First  begotten :  "  first  born."  {Loved :  The  best  MSS.  read 
"  loves." —  Washed :  The  oldest  MSS.  read  "  loosed,"  or,  as  some 
render  it,  "  redeemed."  We  should  then  have  to  translate  "  with" 
for  in  "  his  own  blood."] 

6.  Kings  and  priests:  comp.  v.  10,  xx.  6.  The  expression  is 
taken  from  Ex.  xix.  6 ;  Is.  Ixi.  6.— [The  best  MSS.  read,  "  And 
hath  made  us  a  kingdom,  priests  unto  God  and  his  father"  (or, 
as  some  render  it,  "his  God  and  Father"),  &c.] 

7.  Clouds:  "the  clouds." — Kindreds:  "tribes." — Comp.  with 
this  verse  Dan.  vii.  13. —  They  luhicli lyiereed  him:  i.e.  his  mur- 
derers. The  expression  is  taken  from  a  passage  in  Zechariah 
(Zech.  xii.  10),  erroneously  interpreted  as  referring  to  the  Mes- 
siah (comp.  John  xix.  37). 

8.  Alpha  and  Omega,  the  first  and  last  letters  of  the  Greek 
alphabet,  i.e.  the  beginning  and  the  end  (comp.  xxi.  6  ;  Is.  xliv.  6), 
as  is  rightly  explained.  The  explanation  itself  is,  however,  a 
later  interpolation,  and  the  words  the  beginning  and  the  ending 
should  be  omitted  here  from  the  text. 

i.  9 — 20.  Introductory  vision. 
This  vision  sets  forth,  after  the  fashion  of  the  ancient  prophets, 
the  commission  which  tlie  Lord  has  given  to  the  seer,  in  order 
to  secure  the  belief  of  the  readers  in  his  prophecies. 

9.  Patmos:  a  small  island  over  against  Ephesus,  the  modern 
name  of  which  is  Patmo  or  Palmosa.  All  that  we  can  infer  from 
the  words  that  follow  is,  that  John  was  in  Patmos  either  that  he 
might  receive  or  that  he  might  proclaim  to  others  the  loord  of  God 
(i.  e.  the  word  that  comes  from  God)  and  the  testimony  of  Jesus 
(i.e.  the  testimony  which  Jesus  bears).  The  ecclesiastical  fathers 
misunderstood  the  passage,  and  took  it  to  mean  that  he  was  there 
as  a  martyr  to  this  word  and  testimony  ;  and  hence  the  tradition 
became  current  that  he  had  been  banished  to  this  island  by  a 
Eonian  emperor. 

10.  In  the  S;pirit  =  in  a  state  of  prophetic  ecstasy. — The  Lord's 


i.  10—20]  EEVELATIOK  239 

day  is  Sunday,  the  day  of  the  resurrection.  The  day  was  not 
observed  by  the  church,  indeed,  in  apostolic  times,  but  it  was 
nevertheless  felt  by  the  Christian  mind  to  be  a  sacred  day  (comp. 
Acts  XX.  7 ;  1  Cor.  xvi.  2). — [Some  commentators  render,  "  In 
tlie  spirit  I  was  present  at  the  day  of  the  Lord."] 

11.  Eead,  "Saying,  What  thou  seest,  write  in  a  book,"  &c. 
The  intervening  words  are  an  interpolation.  [There  is  the  same 
authority  of  all  the  oldest  MSS.  for  omitting  the  words  ivhich 
are  in  Asia.] — The  churches  addressed  in  ver.  4  are  here  enu- 
merated. For  remarks  on  these  various  cities  see  below  (notes 
to  ch.  ii.  iii.). 

12.  "  Seven  golden  lamp-stands"  [so  properly,  and  not  candle- 
sticks] in  imitation  of  the  lamp-stands  on  which  were  placed  the 
seven  lamps  in  the  tabernacle  (Exod.  xxv.  37,  xxxvii.  23).  What 
they  signify  is  explained  by  ver.  20. 

13.  The  son  of  man :  "  A  son  of  man,"  i.  e.  the  Messiah  (after 
Dan.  vii.  13).  Clothed  with  a  garment  doivn  to  the  foot,  &c. :  a 
description  of  the  priestly  dress  (comp.  Dan.  x.  5).  See  note  on 
XV.  6. 

14.  Comp.  Dan.  vii.  9. 

16.  For  the  meaning  of  the  seven  stars,  see  ver.  20. — A  sharp 
tivo-cdgcd  sword:  comp.  Is.  xlix.  2. — As  the  sun:  comp.  Judges 
V.  31. 

17,  18.  Fear  not,  &c. :  "  Fear  not ;  I  am  the  first  and  the  last 
and  the  living  One ;  and  I  was  dead,  and  behold  I  am  alive  for 
ever  and  ever,  and  have  the  keys,"  &c.  [So  very  many  trans- 
lators.]— Hell  [Gr.  Hades,  see  note  on  vi.  8],  not  the  abode  of  the 
damned,  but  the  under-world,  into  which,  according  to  the  belief 
of  that  age,  the  souls  of  the  departed  passed  with  few  exceptions 
("see  note  on  xx.  4).  [The  best  MSS.  read,  "  the  keys  of  death 
and  of  Hades."] 

20.  Candlestichs:  "lamp-stands." — Hie  seven  churches:  "seven 
churches."— I-FVa'c/t  thou  sawest  should  be  omitted  in  the  second 
part  of  the  verse. — The  angels  are  not  the  presidents  of  the  com- 
munities, but  the  guardian  angels  of  the  communities  (comp. 
Matt,  xviii.  10  ;  Acts  xii.  15),  whom  John  regarded  as  their  repre- 
sentatives ;  so  that  in  what  follows  he  says  of  the  angel,  as  the 
personified  spirit  of  the  community,  what  really  applies  to  each 
community. 


240  REVELATION.  [ii.  1—8 

Ch.  ii.  iii.  Seven  letters,  each  consisting  of  an  address,  letter 
^proper,  and  conclusio7i. 

ii.  1 — 7.  Letter  to  the  community  at  Uphesus. 

1.  Of  Ephesus:  "in  Ephesus." — On  Ephesus  and  the  Christian 
community  there,  see  introduction  to  the  Epistle  to  the  Ephe- 
sians. 

2.  As  Paul  had  many  opponents  to  contend  with  in  Ephesus 
about  the  year  A.D.  58  (1  Cor.  xvi.  9),  and  after  his  death  a 
school  hostile  to  him  actually  became  supreme  there  (Acts  xx. 
29  sqq.),  nothing  can  be  more  natural  than  to  suppose  that  those 
who  "  say  that  they  are  apostles  and  are  not,"  are  Paul  himself 
and  his  fellow-labourers.  The  apocalyptic  writer  recognizes  no 
apostle  except  the  twelve  (xxi.  14). 

3.  Eead,  "■  And  hast  patience  and  didst  bear  for  my  name's 
sake,  and  hast  not  been  weary." 

4.  Hast  left :  strictly,  "  didst  leave." 

5.  Quickly  should  be  omitted. — The  threat  contained  in  this 
verse  signifies,  I  will  exclude  thee  from  the  number  of  the 
Christian  communities. 

6.  Nicolaitans:  This  enigmatical  name  must  not  be  understood 
as  the  name  of  a  definite  sect,  founded,  as  many  ancient  com- 
mentators have  supposed,  by  Nicolas  of  Antioch  (Acts  vi.  5). 
The  Greek  name  Nicolaos  (conqueror  of  the  people)  has  pretty 
much  the  same  signification  as  the  Hebrew  Bileam  (destroyer  of 
the  people),  and  so  we  should  rather  regard  these  Nicolaitans  as 
more  or  less  the  same  as  those  who  "  hold  the  doctrine  of  Bileam" 
(ver.  14).     On  this  see  further  notes  on  vv.  14,  20. 

7.  He  that  hath  an  car,  let  him  hear :  An  exhortation  several 
times  used  by  John  to  call  the  attention  of  his  readers  to  revela- 
tions of  especial  importance  (vv.  7,  11,  17,  29,  iii.  6,  13,  22, 
xiii.  9).  It  is  derived  from  Jesus  himself  (Matt.  xi.  15,  xiii.  9, 
43). — The  tree  of  life:  see  note  on  xxii.  1  sqq. — [In  the  midst  of: 
The  best  MSS.  read  simply  "  in."] 

ii.  8 — 11.  Letter  to  the  coimnunity  at  Smyrna. 

8.  S^nyrna :  A  famous  Ionian  commercial  city,  situated  on 
an  arm  of  the  sea,  which  was  called  from  it  the  bay  of  Smyrna, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Meles,  about  36  miles  north  of  Ephesus. 
Under  the  earlier  Eoman  emperors  it  was  one  of  the  most 


ii.  8 — 14]  REVELATION.  241 

beautiful  and  populous  cities  of  Asia  Minor.  In  the  following 
century,  Polycarp,  well  known  by  his  martyr's  death,  was  bishop 
of  the  Christian  community  there. 

9.  Works  and  should  be  omitted. — According  to  the  primitive 
Christian  view,  those  who  believe  in  Christ  are  the  true  Israel 
(comp.  Gal.  vi.  16 ;  Phil.  iii.  3).  Hence  John  refuses  to  reckon 
the  unbelieving  Jews  as  Jews  at  all.  According  to  him,  they 
are  not,  as  they  suppose,  a  synagogue  of  God,  but  of  Satan. 

10.  The  devil :  as  the  god  of  this  world  (2  Cor.  iv.  4),  whose 
power  culminates  immediately  before  the  dawn  of  the  Messianic 
age. — Ten  days:  a  round  number  to  indicate  a  short  time  of  trial 
(Dan.  i.  12  sqq.).  A  croivn  of  life:  strictly,  "the  crown  of  life." 
The  victors  in  the  Greek  games  received  as  a  prize  a  golden 
crown  (comp.  1  Cor.  ix.  25 ;  Jas.  i.  12). 

11.  The  second  death:  see  xx.  14. 

ii.  12 — 17.  Letter  to  the  community  at  Pcrgamos. 

12.  Pergamos,  on  the  river  Caicus,  formerly  the  residence  of 
the  kings  descended  from  Attains,  famous  for  its  temple  of 
jEsculapius  or  Asklepios  (the  god  of  healing).  The  image  of  the 
god  was  placed  on  a  throne  encircled  by  a  serpent. 

13.  Eead,  "  I  know  where  thou  dwellest,  where  Satan's  throne 
is,"  &c.  "  Satan's  throne :"  an  allusion  to  the  temple  of  J^^scu- 
lapius. — Nothing  further  is  known  of  Antipas.  \_Satan's  seat: 
The  word  here  rendered  seat  is  the  Greek  "  thrones."  It  is  used 
of  the  seat  of  God,  of  the  elders,  of  the  Eoman  emperors,  &c., 
and  is  variously  translated  throne  or  seat  in  A.V.  Comp.  i.  4,  ii.  13, 
iv.  2,  4,  10,  xiii.  2,  xvi.  10,  17,  &c.] 

14.  Balaam  :  the  Greek  form  of  the  Hebrew  Bileam.  Under 
the  guidance  of  Bileam,  the  Moabitish  king  Balak  seduced  the 
Israelites  to  the  worship  of  Baal  Peor  and  the  immoralities  con- 
nected with  his  worship  (Num.  xxv.  1  sqq.,  xxxi.  8, 16).  That  the 
Pauline  Gentile  Christians  did  not  fear  to  eat  flesh  offered  to 
idols,  often  even  at  the  temple  feasts,  and  that  they  were  not 
always  very  particular  about  the  observance  of  the  seventh  com- 
mandment, is  shown  by  the  First  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians 
(1  Cor.  vi.  13,  viii.  x.).  While  Paul  declares  that  there  is  no 
harm  in  the  eating  of  flesh  offered  to  idols  in  itself,  and  only 
wishes  it  to  be  avoided  for  the  sake  of  the  weak,  John  rejects  it 
unconditionally,  thus  coming  into  collision  with  the  view  ex- 

VOL.  III.  E 


242  HEFELATIOK  [u.  14—20 

pressed  in  Acts  xv.  20 — 29.  It  is  possible  that  fornication  ought 
not  to  be  understood  here  in  the  strict  sense,  but  as  referring 
to  matrimonial  alliances  with  Gentiles,  which  were  forbidden  to 
the  Jews. 

15.  [-Dficolaitans :  see  note  on  ver.  6.] — Which  thing  I  hate 
should  be  omitted. 

17.  To  eat  should  be  omitted. — The,  hidden  manna  :  There  is 
here  an  allusion  to  the  belief  which  arose  concerning  the  pot  of 
manna  which,  according  to  Exod.  xvi.  32 — 34,  stood  before  the 
ark  of  the  covenant  as  a  memorial  of  the  feeding  of  the  people 
in  the  wilderness,  and  which  was  lost,  together  with  the  ark,  at 
the  time  when  the  Temple  was  destroyed  by  the  Chaldeans  (B.C. 
586).  This  later  belief  was,  that  it  had  been  placed  in  concealment 
by  Jeremiah,  and  would  be  produced  again  in  the  Messianic 
kingdom. — A  lohite  stoyie :  Votes  in  favour  of  an  accused  person 
were  given  by  the  judges  with  a  white  stone.  It  is  here  the 
symbol  of  the  happy  lot  of  the  victors. — A  nevj  name:  After 
Is.  Ixii.  2,  where  Jerusalem  receives  a  new  name  (comp.  Eev. 
xiv.  1).  The  name  meant  is  Yahveh  (Jehovah),  which  no  one 
might  utter. 

ii.  18 — 29.  Letter  to  the  community  at  Thyatira. 

18.  Thyatira,  a  city  in  Lydia,  on  the  river  Lycus,  about  thirty- 
two  miles  nortli  of  Sardis,  famous  for  its  manufacture  of  purple 
dye.  (Lydia,  the  seller  of  purple,  came  from  Thyatira.  Acts  xvi.  14.) 

[19.  And  thy  toorks,  &c. :  The  best  MSS.  read,  "  And  thy  last 
works  are  more  than  the  first."] 

20.  [A  few  things :  One  ancient  MS.  reads  "much;"  others 
simply,  "  I  have  against  thee  that  thou  sufferest,"  &c.] — That 
woman  should  be  "  thy  wife."  [The  MSS.  are  divided  between 
"the  woman"  and  "thy  wife."— To  teach,  &c. :  The  best  MSS. 
read,  "  and  she  teacheth  and  seduceth,"  &c.] — The  name  Jezebel, 
which,  like  the  name  Nicolaitans,  must  be  interpreted  symbolic- 
ally, signifies  that  the  bearer  of  it,  like  the  Phoenician  princess 
Jezebel,  the  wife  of  Ahab  (1  Kings  xvi.  31,  xviii.  13, 19,  xix.  1  sq.), 
encouraged  and  promoted  idolatry.  Probably  we  ought  not  to 
understand  the  name  to  refer  to  any  individual,  but  to  a  party 
existing  in  the  community,  the  adherents  of  which  are  called 
her  children  (ver.  23).  (We  may  compare  xii.  17,  where  the  true 
Christians  are  spoken  of  as  the  children  of  the  woman  who 


ii.  20 — iii.  2]  REVELATION.  243 

represents  the  community  of  God.)  This  party  in  Thyatira  is 
the  same  as  the  Bileamites  in  Pergaraos.  The  very  same  reproach 
is  brought  against  both. — Prophetess:  The  name  of  prophet  is 
especially  dear  to  the  apocalyptic  writer,  who  lives  altogether  in 
Old  Testament  views  and  ideas  (comp.  x.  7,  xi.  18,  xxii.  6,  9). 
Hence  the  desecration  of  it  provokes  his  strongest  indignation. 

22.  A  bed :  i.  e.  a  bed  of  sickness.  I  threaten  her  with  sick- 
ness.— Them  that  commit  adultery  with  her:  In  the  Old  Testament 
the  connection  between  the  people  of  Israel  and  God  is  habitually 
regarded  in  the  light  of  a  marriage,  so  that  idolatry,  which  breaks 
this  tie,  is  regarded  as  adultery.  In  this  figurative  sense  the 
word  is  to  be  understood  here  also. 

23.  Scarcheth  the  reins  and  hearts :  Ps.  vii.  9. 

24.  25.  Eead,  "  But  unto  you  I  say,  unto  the  rest  that  are  in 
Tliyatira,"  &c. — As  they  speak:  "as  they  say." — Probably  the 
opponents  of  the  Law  in  Thyatira  boasted  with  Paul  (1  Cor.  ii.  10) 
that  they  had  known  the  depths  of  the  Godhead.  John,  however, 
reckons  what  they  have  known  as  the  depths  of  Satan. — /  will 
put  upon  yoiL  none  other  burden,  &c. :  No  new  yoke  of  the  Law  is 
laid  upon  the  community.  They  are  only  called  upon  faithfully 
to  observe  until  the  return  of  the  Lord  those  precepts  which  are 
still  in  force  among  them,  which  include  the  prohibition  of  flesh 
offered  to  idols  and  intermarriage  with  the  Gentiles. 

27.  After  Ps.  ii  9,  to  which  a  Messianic  interpretation  was 
given. — l^Ride:  strictly,  "pasture,"  i.e.  tend  them  as  a  shepherd 
tends  his  sheep.     So  the  Greek  version  of  the  psalm  reads.] 

28,  In  Daniel  xii.  8  it  is  said  that,  in  the  Messianic  age,  they 
that  direct  many  to  righteousness  shall  shine  as  the  stars  for 
ever  and  ever.  Here  they  that  overcome  are  adorned  with  the 
morning  star,  so  that  they  now  shine  with  its  glory  (comp.  xii.  1). 

iii.  1 — 6.  Letter  to  the  community  at  Sardis. 

1.  Sardis  or  Sardes,  the  ancient  capital  of  Lydia,  situated  at 
the  foot  of  Mount  Tmolus,  on  a  plain  through  which  the  river 
Pactolus  flows,  about  thirty-two  miles  south  of  Thyatira.  During 
the  reign  of  Tiberius  the  city  was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake, 
but  was  rebuilt  with  the  assistance  of  the  emperor.  The  village 
of  Sart  now  stands  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  city. 

2.  Works,  if  they  are  to  suffice  for  the  salvation  of  him  who 
does  them,  must  complete  the  measure  appointed  by  God,  vn  liicli 

k2 


244  REVELATION.  [iii.  2 — 14 

was  not  yet  the  case  with  the  works  of  the  community  in  Sardis. 
—[Before  God :  The  best  MSS.  read,  "  before  my  God."] 

3.  As  a  thief,  &c. :  comp.  Matt.  xxiv.  43  ;  1  Thess.  v.  2. 

4.  "But  thou  hast  a  few  names  in  Sardis,"  &c. — Purity  of 
garments  is  a  symbol  of  inner  purity. 

5.  And  I  will  not  hlot  out  his  name,  &c. :  As  the  Hebrews 
were  enrolled  in  lists  by  the  authorities,  and  no  one  whose  name 
was  missing  could  claim  membership  in  the  Israelitish  commu- 
nity, so  the  names  of  those  who  are  destined  for  eternal  life  are 
written  down  in  a  book  in  heaven,  which  is  therefore  called  the 
Book  of  Life  (xiii.  8,  xvii.  8,  xx.  12,  15,  xxi.  27.  See  also  Exod. 
xxxii.  32  sq. ;  Ps.  Ixix.  28,  cxxxix.  16 ;  Is.  iv.  3 ;  Dan.  xii.  1 ; 
Phil.  iv.  3).  Whoever  is  blotted  out  of  this  book  is  doomed  to 
eternal  destruction. — /  ivill  confess  his  name :  comp.  Matt.  x.  32  ; 
Luke  xii.  8. 

iii.  7 — 13.  Letter  to  the  commimit//  at  Philadelphia. 

7.  Philadelphia  was  situated  about  twenty-five  miles  south- 
east of  Sardis.  Its  modern  name  is  Allah-shehr. — He  that  hath 
the  key  of  David,  &c. :  an  allusion  to  Is.  xxii.  22.  The  Messiah 
has  authority  to  admit  into  his  kingdom  or  to  exclude  from  it 
whom  he  will. 

8.  An  open  door:  opportunity  for  the  spread  of  the  gospel 
(comp.  1  Cor.  xvi.  9). 

9.  Comp.  ii.  9. — The  promise  is  after  Is.  xlv.  14. 

10.  The  word  of  my  patience :  so  called  inasmuch  as  it  preaches 
patience  as  the  best  means  for  obtaining  victory. — The  honr  of 
temptation:  i.e.  of  trial.  What  is  here  meant  is  the  Messianic 
woes.     See  Introd.  j)p.  225  sq. 

11.  Hold  that  fast  which  thou  hast :  observe  the  command- 
ments given  to  thee. — Thy  erov:n :  which  is  laid  up  ready  for 
thee  in  heaven. 

12.  A  pillar  in  the  temple :  as  the  apostles  James,  Peter  and 
John,  were  regarded  as  pillars  or  supports  of  the  spiritual  temple, 
the  Christian  community  (Gal.  ii.  9). — Neio  Jerusalem :  see  xxi.  10. 
— My  nevj  name :  the  same  that  is  meant  in  xix.  12. 

iii.  14 — 22.  Letter  to  the  community  at  Laodieea. 

14.  Of  the  Laodiceans :  "In  Laodieea"  [so  all  the  old  MSS.]. 
— Laodieea  was  a  wealthy  commercial  city  on  the  Lycus,  in 


iii.  14 — iv.  5]  REVELATION.  245 

Phrygia.  In  the  year  62  it  was  destroyed,  together  with  the 
neighbouring  cities  of  Colossse  and  Hierapolis,  by  an  earthquake. 
Its  own  resources,  however,  sufficed  for  its  speedy  restoration. — 
The  Amen :  i.e.  the  true,  the  trustworthy. — The  beginning  of  the 
creation  of  God:  corap.  John  i.  1  sqq. ;  Col.  i.  16. 

15.  The  corumunity  is  suffering  from  want  of  religious  ear- 
nestness. It  has  not  sufficient  zeal  either  for  a  decided  accept- 
ance or  a  decided  rejection  of  the  gospel. 

16.  That  which  is  lukewarm  provokes  nausea.  Hence  one 
cannot  keep  it  long  in  one's  mouth.  The  community  is  here 
threatened  with  exclusion  from  the  roll  of  the  Christian  com- 
munities. 

18.  White  raiment :  see  note  on  ver.  4. — And  anoint,  &c., 
should  be,  "  and  eye-salve  to  anoint  thine  eyes,"  &c. 

19.  Comp.  Heb.  xii.  6. 

20.  I  stand  at  the  door :  comp.  Luke  xii.  36. —  Will  sup  with 
him :  a  sign  of  the  most  intimate  fellowship.  Compare  the  habi- 
tual representation  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven,  under  the  figure 
of  a  meal  to  which  guests  are  invited,  in  the  gospel  parables. 

21.  Comp.  Matt.  xix.  28. — The  dominion  of  Jesus  still  appears 
as  the  reward  of  his  victory,  and  not  as  anything  that  belongs 
to  him  as  his  own  from  the  beginning. 

iv.   The  throne  of  God. 

1,  The  beginning  of  the  revelation.  The  seer,  who  has  hitherto 
been  upon  earth,  is  now  removed  to  heaven,  and  there  sees  in 
pictures  what  is  to  happen  on  earth. — A  door  was  opened  should 
be  "a  door  had  been  opened"  [or,  as  some  translate,  "behold,  an 
opened  door  in  heaven"]. 

2.  The  seer  purposely  abstains  from  uttering  the  name  of  God, 
and  leaves  it  to  be  understood  from  the  context  (comp.  Ezek.  i. 
26  sq.). 

4.  [^Throne  ....  seats:  the  same  word  in  the  Greek;  see  note 
on  ii.  13.] — In  Dan.  vii.  9,  thrones  are  mentioned  in  the  last  judg- 
ment, and  hence  assessors  with  God  are  assumed.  The  later 
Judaism  fixed  their  number  at  twenty-four.  Here  we  must 
understand  the  twenty-four  to  be  the  representatives  of  the  old 
and  new  people  of  the  covenant,  the  twelve  patriarchs  of  the 
Israelitish  nation,  and  the  twelve  apostles. 

5.  The  seven  Spirits :  comp.  i.  4. 


246  REVELATION.  [iv.  6— V.  9 

6.  A  sea  of  glass:  comp.  Exod.  xxiv.  10;  Ezck.  i.  22. — Four 
beasts :  The  Greek  word  denotes  living  creatures  generally,  so 
that  it  may  also  include  men. 

7.  8.  And  the  four  beasts,  &c.,  should  be,  "  And  the  four  beasts 
have  each  of  them  six  wings,  and  are  full  of  eyes  round  about," 
&c. — The  seer  has  in  his  mind  the  description  of  the  cherubim 
(Ezek.  i.  10),  the  figures  of  which  were  composed  of  a  man,  a 
lion,  a  steer  and  an  eagle.  He  chooses,  however,  not  four,  but 
six  wings,  in  imitation  of  Is.  vi.  2,  from  which  passage  he  also 
borrows  the  song  of  praise  which  the  four  beings  sing  as  the 
representatives  of  the  visible  creation. 

9 — 11.  Eead,  "And  whenever  the  beasts  shall  give  glory  and 
honour  and  thanks  to  Him  that  sitteth  upon  the  throne,  who 
liveth  for  ever  and  ever,  then  the  four-and-twenty  elders  will  fall 
down  before  Him  that  sitteth  upon  the  throne,  and  will  worship 
Him  that  liveth  for  ever  and  ever,  and  will  cast  their  crowns 
before  the  throne,  saying,  Thou  art  worthy,  our  Lord  and  God,  to 
receive,"  &c. 

10,  11.  Comp.  V.  12  sq.,  x.  6. 

V.  The  Book  of  Fate. 
1.  The  book  contains  the  fate  of  the  world.  We  must  under- 
stand it,  like  all  the  books  of  the  ancients,  to  be  written  in  the 
form  of  a  roll ;  and  to  show  the  abundance  of  its  contents,  it  is 
stated  that  even  the  back  is  written  upon,  whereas  the  usual 
rolls  were  only  written  within. 

3.  V'tider  the  earth :  in  the  under- world,  which  was  peopled 
by  the  departed. 

4.  John  weeps  because  he  fears  that  he  will  not  receive  the 
revelation. — A^id  to  read  should  be  omitted. 

5.  The  lion  of  the  tribe  of  Jitda:  So  Christ  is  called,  after  Gen. 
xlix.  9,  and  again  the  root  of  David,  after  Is.  xi.  1,  10. — Hath 
prevailed :  "  hath  overcome." 

6.  Christ  is  represented  under  the  figure  of  a  lamb,  after  Is. 
liii.  7.  The  seven  horns  are  a  symbol  of  power.  On  the  seven 
Spirits,  see  note  on  i.  4. 

8.  The  incense  of  the  priests  offering  sacrifice  was  the  symbol 
of  the  prayers  offered  up  to  God. 

9.  A  new  song:  comp.  Ps.  xxxiii.  3,  xl.  3. —  Us  should  be 
omitted. 


V.  10— vi.  8]  REVELATION.  247 

10.  Us  .  ...  Ave  should  be  "them  ....  they."— [/i'ma^'s  ;  Two 
of  the  best  MSS.  read,  "  a  kiugdom."] 

11.  The  number  of  the  heavenly  hosts  is  given  after  Dan. 
vii.  10. — {Ten  thousand  times  ten  thousand:  Gr.  "myriads  of 
myriads,"  i.  e.  strictly,  "  ten-thousands  of  ten-thousands."] 

14.  Eead,  "And  the  four  beasts  (or  "living  creatures")  said 
Amen.  And  the  elders  fell  down  and  worshipped."  The  other 
words  of  this  verse  should  be  omitted. 

vi.  1 — 8.  The  first  four  seals. 

1.  The  Book  of  Fate  is  now  opened,  and  it  should  be  noticed 
that  its  contents  are  not  read,  but  appear  in  visible  form  before 
the  €ye  of  the  beholder  as  the  seals  are  opened. — [The  seals: 
The  best  MSS.  read,  "  the  seven  seals."]— Cowie  .•  The  words  and 
see  should  be  omitted  here  and  in  the  corresponding  passages 
(vv.  3,  5,  7)  as  not  genuine.  The  word  Co)7ie  must  then  be  taken 
as  addressed,  not  to  the  seer,  but  to  the  rider  who  appears  directly 
after  it  is  uttered. 

2.  The  rider,  who  appears  arrayed  as  a  Eoman  general  in  his 
triumph,  is  indisputably  the  Messiah  (see  xix.  11  sqq.).  He 
bears  a  how  because  (according  to  xvii.  14)  he  is  to  overcome  the 
Parthians,  who  are  famous  as  archers.  He  receives  a  crown  as 
the  prize  of  his  certain  victory  (see  note  on  xviii.  2). 

3.  And  see  should  be  omitted ;  see  note  on  ver.  1. 

4.  Red :  the  colour  of  blood  (comp.  ver.  12,  xii.  3,  xvii.  3  sq.). 
The  second  rider  is  the  symbol  of  war  and  bloodshed. 

5.  6.  Come  and  see :  see  note  on  ver.  1. — The  third  rider  is  the 
symbol  of  dearth  and  famine.  The  balance  in  his  hand  signifies 
that  men  are  compelled  scrupulously  to  weigh  out  all  the  neces- 
saries of  life.  The  measure  of  wheat  shall  cost  a  penny.  (Gr. 
"a  denarius,"  i.e.  about  sevenpence-halfpenny).  Three  measures 
of  barley  shall  cost  the  same.  A  denarius  w^as  a  labourer's  daily 
wage  (comp.  Matt.  xx.  2).  It  was  also  a  soldier's  pay.  Hence 
these  must  give  their  whole  earnings  to  purchase  bread.  That 
the  oil  and  the  wine  remain  uninjured  only  increases  the  misery 
of  the  situation,  as  the  poor  derive  no  benefit  from  this. — [Measure: 
Gr.  "  choenix,"  which  was  one  day's  allowance  of  corn  or  meal.] 

7.  And  see:  see  note  on  ver.  1. 

8.  Pale:  i.e.  in  appearance  like  death. — Hell  [Gr.  Hades],  i.e. 
the  under-world  as  the  residence  of  the  dead,  is  here  personified. 


248  REVELATION.  [vi.  8— vii.  3 

and  follows  after  death  in  order  to  seize  upon  those  who  have 
been  slaughtered  by  him.  [Hades  of  the  Greek  mythology  was 
properly  a  person,  not  a  place.  The  genitive  case  of  the  name  was 
properly  used  for  his  kingdom.  Afterwards  the  name  itself  was 
used  as  the  name  of  a  place.  Both  usages  are  found  in  the  New 
Testament.] 

vi.  9—11.  The  fifth  seal. 

9.  The  martyrs  whose  souls  John  sees  are  the  Christians  who 
had  been  slain  by  Nero  (see  Introd.  p.  226).  They  are  under 
the  altar  because  they  have  been  sacrificed,  the  blood  of  the 
beasts  for  sacrifice  being  poured  out  at  the  foot  of  the  altar. 
Hence  they  are  already  in  heaven,  not  in  the  under-world ;  but 
they  have  not  yet  entered  upon  the  full  enjoyment  of  heavenly 
bliss.     See  note  on  xx.  4. 

11.  "  And  a  white  robe  was  given  to  each  one  of  them."  [So 
all  the  best  MSS.].  The  white  robe  is  an  acknowledgment  of 
the  right  of  the  martyrs  to  partake  in  the  Messianic  kingdom. 
Comp.  iii.  4  sq.,  vii.  9,  xix.  8. 

vi.  12 — 17.  Tlie  sixth  seal. 

The  description  that  now  follows  is  formed  of  extracts  from 
the  Old  Testament.  With  the  picture  here  given  of  the  convul- 
sions of  the  last  times,  we  may  compare  Matt.  xxiv.  29  and  the 
parallel  passages. 

12 — 14.  Comp.  Is.  xxxiv.  4. 

12.  And  the  moon,  &c.,  should  be,  "  and  the  moon  became  all 
as  blood." 

14.  A  scroll:  i.e.  a  book  in  the  form  of  a  roll  such  as  the 
ancients  used.     See  note  on  v.  1. 

16.  Comp.  Hos.  X.  8 ;  Luke  xxiii.  30. 

vii.  1 — 8.   The  sealing  of  those  who  are  chosen  out  of  Israel. 

1.  The  stillness  here  secured  by  the  angels  is  fitting  for  the 
solemnity  of  the  proceeding  which  is  described  in  the  following 
verses. 

2,  3.  It  was  customary  among  the  ancients  to  brand  slaves 
with  the  name  of  their  master.  So,  here,  those  who  are  marked 
with  the  seal  of  God  are  declared  to  be  God's  possession,  upon 
whom,  therefore,  no  power  may  lay  hands.  Comp.  Exod.  xii.  13  ; 
Ezek.  ix.  4  sqq.     In  this  sealing  there  is  an  allusion  to  baptism, 


vii.  3 — viii.  3]  jievelatiox.  249 

which  the  Fathers  called  the  "  seal  of  the  Lord ;"  just  as  circum- 
cision, the  place  of  which  was  taken  by  baptism,  is  similarly- 
regarded  by  Paul  as  a  seal  (Eom.  iv.  11). 

4 — 8.  The  reckoning  adopted  here  is  unusual.  Elsewhere  we 
usually  find  that  the  tribe  of  Levi,  which  had  no  territorial  pos- 
sessions, is  omitted,  and  the  tribe  of  Joseph  is  divided  into  the 
two  tribes  of  Ephraim  and  Manasseh.  Here,  however,  in  addi- 
tion to  Joseph,  which  includes  these  two  tribes,  Manasseh  is 
mentioned  separately,  and  so  is  counted  twice  over,  the  omission 
of  Dan  making  room  for  it  among  the  twelve.  It  is  possible 
that  Dan  may  have  originally  followed  after  Naphthali  in  ver.  6, 
and  that  the  name  may  have  been  mistaken  by  a  copyist  for 
Man.  (as  an  abbreviation  of  Manasseh).  The  twelve  times  twelve 
thousand  (144,000)  Israelites  make  up  the  full  number  of  the 
citizens  of  the  Messianic  kingdom. — The  words  were  sealed  should 
not  be  repeated  after  the  name  of  each  tribe.  In  the  old  MSS. 
they  only  occur  at  the  beginning  and  end,  after  Judah  and  Ben- 
jamin. 

vii.  9 — 17.   The  redeemed  from  among  the  Gentiles. 

14.  Their  claim  to  participate  in  the  Messianic  kingdom  rests 
upon  the  steadfastness  which  they  have  manifested  during  the 
great  tribulation,  and  upon  the  sacrificial  death  of  Jesus,  the 
merit  of  which  they  have  appropriated. 

16.  Comp.  Is.  xlix.  10 ;  Ps.  cxxi.  6. 

17.  Comp.  xxi.  4;  Is.  xxv.  8. 

viii.  1,  The  seventh  seal. 

1.  When  the  seventh  seal  is  opened,  which  contains  that  which 
is  most  important  of  all,  the  final  judgment,  there  is  a  pause,  in 
order  to  raise  expectation  to  its  highest  degree.  The  contents 
are  not  revealed  all  at  once  to  the  eye  of  the  seer,  but  are  divided 
into  seven  occurrences,  which  are  introduced  by  the  trumpets  of 
seven  angels. 

viii.  2 — 6.  The  action  in  heaven  preparatory  to  the  sounding  of  the 
seven  trumpets. 

2.  Stood  should  be  "  stand." — On  the  seven  angels,  see  note 
on  i.  4.  They  stand  before  God  to  serve  Him.  Comp.  1  Kings 
xvii.  1 ;  Luke  i.  19. 

3.  That  he  should  offer  it  with,  &c. :  lit.  "  that  he  should  give 


250  BEVELATION.  [viii.  3 — ix.  1 

it  to  the  prayers  of  all  saints,"  &c.,  i.e.  that  he  should  make  their 
prayers  of  good  savour,  or,  to  drop  the  metaphor,  pleasing  to  God. 

4.  Eead,  "And  the  smoke  of  the  incense  went  up  to  (i.e.  in 
assistance  of)  the  prayers  of  the  saints,  out  of  the  hand  of  the 
angel  before  God." 

5.  Into:  "upon." 

viii.  7 — 13.  The  first  four  trumpets. 

The  plagues  here  described  are  described  mainly  after  the 
plagues  which  Moses  brought  upon  Egypt.  Comp.  Exod.  vii. — x. 
It  should  be  noticed  that  whereas  the  occurrences  which  take 
place  after  the  opening  of  the  first  six  seals  affect  the  whole  of 
mankind,  and  destroy  the  fourth  part  of  it  (vi.  8),  these  plagues 
fall  only  upon  Gentiles  and  Jews  and  upon  the  third  part  of  the 
earth. 

7.  After  the  word  earth  should  be  added,  "  and  the  third  part 
of  the  earth  was  burnt  up." 

8.  Comp.  Jer.  li.  25. 

10.  Comp.  Is.  xiv.  12. — Lamp:  "torch." 

11.  The  fulfilment  of  the  threat  uttered  by  Jeremiah  (Jer. 
ix.  15,  xxiii.  15),  that  God  would  feed  the  disobedient  people 
with  wormwood. 

12.  The  partial  darkening  of  the  sun  deprives  a  third  part  of 
the  day  of  its  usual  light,  and  the  partial  darkening  of  the  moon 
and  stars  has  the  same  effect  upon  a  third  part  of  the  night. 

13.  An  angd  should  be  "an  eagle."  The  eagle  is  chosen  as  a 
majestic,  swift  and  unwearied  bird.  Comp.  iv,  7,  xii.  14 ;  Is.  xl.  31. 
He  flies  in  "  mid-heaven,"  i.  e.  where  the  sun  stands  at  mid-day. 
His  cry  announces  three  separate  plagues  (woes),  of  which  the 
first  is  described  in  ix.  1 — 12,  the  second  in  ix.  13 — 21,  xi.  13, 14, 
and  the  third  in  ch.  xvi.  [the  actual  sounding  of  the  seventh 
trumpet  being  mentioned  in  xi.  15,  after  which  comes  a  long 
interlude  before  the  woes  which  follow  in  ch.  xvi.]. 

ix.  1 — 12.  The  fifth  trumpet.     Tlu  first  woe. 

1.  Foil:  "fallen." — The  hottomlcss  pit :  "  the  well  of  the  ab3^ss  " 
[so  lit.]. — The  angels  who  rebelled  against  God  are  regarded  as 
stars  fallen  from  heaven.  Comp.  Luke  x.  18,  after  Is.  xiv.  12, 
Such  an  angel  we  must  understand  here  also. — "  Abyss,"  in  its 
more  comprehensive  sense  ^  the  under-world ;   in  its  narrower 


ix.  1 — 16]  REVELATION.  251 

sense,  a  definite  portion  of  tlie  under-world,  which  was  the  abode 
of  evil  spirits  and  the  damned.  The  meaning  is  the  same  in 
xi.  7,  XX.  1,  3  ;  Luke  viii.  31. 

2.  \_The  bottomless  pit :  the  same  here  as  in  ver.  1.]  — 57ie  smoke 
of  a  great  furnace :  comp.  Gen.  xix.  28.  For  the  darkening  of  the 
sun  and  air  by  smoke  containing  a  swarm  of  locusts  (see  ver.  3), 
compare  Joel  ii.  10. 

3 — 11.  The  description  of  the  locusts  is  partly  borrowed  from 
Joel  ii.  1 — 11,  but  the  apocalyptic  writer  surpasses  him  by  the 
addition  of  some  further  features  of  terror. 

3.  Power,  as  the  scorpions  of  the  earth  have  potoer :  i.e.  they  are 
to  injure  men  only,  and  not  vegetation. 

4.  Those  meyi  which  have  not  the  seal  of  God  in  their  foreheads : 
i.e.  all  who  are  not  Christians,  whether  Jews  or  Gentiles.  Comp. 
vii.  3. 

5.  Five  months  is  the  period  of  summer  and  of  the  locusts. 

6.  Comp.  Job  iii.  21. 

10.  11.  Eead,  "  And  they  have  tails  like  unto  scorpions  and 
stings  ;  and  in  their  tails  is  their  power  to  hurt  men  five  months. 
And  they  have  a  king  over  them,  the  angel  of  the  abyss,"  &c. 

11.  Abaddon  means  "  destruction ;"  Apollyon  signifies  "  de- 
stroyer." The  former  word  is  used  in  the  Old  Testament  to 
signify  the  kingdom  of  destruction  [and  is  translated  "  destruc- 
tion" in  A. v.]  (Job  xxvi.  6,  xxviii.  22).  Among  the  Eabbis  it 
was  used  more  specifically  to  denote  the  lowest  chamber  of  hell. 
The  personification  here  is  similar  to  that  of  death  and  the  under- 
world (vi.  8,  XX.  14).  A  tendency  to  tliis  personification  may  be 
found  as  early  as  the  Book  of  Job  (Job  xxviii.  22). 

12.  Eead,  "  The  one  woe  is  past,  and  behold  there  come  two 
more  woes  after  these  things." 

ix.  13 — 21.   The  sixth  trumpet.     The  beginning  of  the  second  tvoe. 

14.  The  river  Euphrates  was  the  boundary  between  the  Eoman 
and  the  Parthian  dominions.  The  innumerable  hordes  of  the 
Parthian  cavalry  had  often  been  dangerous  to  Eome.  They 
appear  here  as  the  second  woe. 

15.  An  hour  should  be  "  the  hour."  ■ 

16.  Two  hundred  thousand  thousand :  lit.  "  twice  ten  thousand 
times  ten  thousand." — John  hears  the  number  because  it  is  im- 
possible to  count  them. 


252  REVELATION.  [ix.  17 — X.  3 

17.  In  the  vision :  John  is  still  in  the  spirit  (iv.  1). — Of  jacinth 
should  be  "  dark  red."  [The  three  epithets  of  the  breastplates 
are  usually  understood  to  refer  to  the  colour  of  them.] 

18.  Eead,  "  By  these  three  plagues  was  the  third  part  of  men 
killed,"  &c. 

19.  Eead,  "  For  the  power  of  the  horses  is  in  their  mouth  and 
in  their  tails,  for  their  tails  are  like  unto  serpents  and  have 
heads,  and  with  them  they  do  hurt." 

20.  Eead,  "  And  the  rest  of  men  which  were  not  killed,"  &c. — 
It  appears  from  this  verse  that  the  object  of  the  plagues  was  to 
bring  non-Christian  humanity  to  repentance.—  Works  of  their 
hands:  i.e.  not  their  doings,  but  the  things  which  their  hands 
had  made,  their  idols  (comp.  Deut.  iv.  28 ;  Ps.  cxxxv.  15  ;  Acts 
vii.  41). — That  they  should  not  worship  devils,  &c. :  John  holds 
the  belief,  which  was  common  to  the  later  Judaism  and  the 
ancient  Fathers,  that  evil  spirits  seduced  the  Gentiles  to  idolatry, 
and  appropriated  to  themselves  the  worship  and  sacrifices  which 
the  latter  thought  to  offer  to  their  gods  (comp.  1  Cor.  x.  20). — 
For  expressions  concerning  idols  similar  to  those  we  find  here, 
see  Ps.  cxv.  4  sq. ;  Is.  xli.  21 — 24;  Baruch  vi.  3  sqq. 

21.  Sorcery  was  rife  at  this  time  both  among  Gentiles  and 
Jews  (comp.  Acts  xix.  13 — 19). — That  even  Jews  were  not  free 
from  theft  and  adultery  is  shown  by  Eom.  ii.  21  sq. 

x.  John's  consecration  as  a  prophet. 

1.  Ere  the  last  woe  comes,  there  is  again  a  pause  which  is 
filled  by  two  symbolic  proceedings.  In  the  first  place  the  seer 
is  consecrated,  like  Ezekiel  of  old,  to  the  prophetic  calling  (comp. 
Ezek.  ii.  8 — iii.  3). — Doivn  from  heaven :  From  this  it  appears 
that  John  is  again  upon  earth,  whereas  hitherto  he  has  been  in 
heaven  (v.  1,  5  sq.,  vii.  9 — 17,  viii.  1  sq.,  ix.  13).  From  this  point 
to  the  end  of  the  book  he  retains  his  position  upon  the  earth 
(x.  4,  8  sq.,  xiv.  2,  13,  xix.  10  sq.,  xx.  1,  xxi.  2,  10)  and  sees  all 
from  there. 

2.  A  little  hook :  This  is  the  remainder  of  the  Book  of  Fate 
(v.  1),  containing  the  most  important  part  of  all,  viz.  the  final 
judgment. 

3.  Seven  thunders  should  be  "  the  seven  thunders."  The  phrase 
is  derived  from  Ps.  xxix.  3 — 9,  where  the  voice  of  the  Lord  is 
mentioned  seven  times  as  like  the  rollino-  thunder. 


X.  5— xi.  3]  REVELATION.  253 

4.  The  sealing  up  is  secured  by  not  writing  these  things. 

5.  Comp.  Dan.  xii.  7. 

6.  That  there  should  he  time  no  longer :  "  that  there  should  be 
no  more  time"  [which  very  many  commentators  understand  to 
mean  "  no  further  delay"]. 

7.  Eead,  "  But  in  the  days  of  the  voice  of  the  seventh  angel 
when  he  shall  sound,  is  fulfilled  [lit.  was  finished]  the  mystery 
of  God,"  &c. — As  he  hath  declared,  &c. :  comp.  Amos  iii.  7. 

8  sqq.  The  meaning  of  the  symbolic  act  here  described  is,  that 
John  must  receive  into  the  inmost  depths  of  his  being  the  sub- 
stance of  the  revelation.  It  is  first  a  joy  to  him,  but  is  bitter  to 
him  within  his  soul,  and  leaves  him  no  peace  until  he  proclaims 
it  to  others,  as  is  commanded  him  in  ver.  11. 

11.  Before  should  be  "concerning." 

xi.  1 — 14.  The  fate  of  Jerusalem.     The  end  of  tlie  second  woe. 

1.  Second  symbolic  action,  after  Ezek.  xl.  3. — The  scene  is  here 
in  Jerusalem,  as  is  indisputably  evident  from  ver.  1  {the  temple  of 
God),  ver.  2  {the  holy  city),  and  ver.  8  {the  great  city  which  spiri- 
tually is  called  Sodo7n  and  Egypt,  where  also  our  (or,  according  to 
the  correct  reading,  "their")  Lord  was  crucified). — We  should 
read  here,  "And  there  was  given  me  a  reed  like  unto  a  rod  (i.e. 
a  measuring  rod),  saying,  Else,"  &c.  Grammatically,  the  word 
"  saying "  in  the  original  text  is  made  by  an  oversight  of  the 
writer  to  refer  to  the  word  "  reed."  The  speaker  is  the  giver  of 
the  reed,  understood,  and  not  further  defined. — The  measuring, 
as  we  see  from  ver.  2,  signifies  that  that  which  is  measured  is 
declared  to  be  inviolable  [comp.  Mark  xiii.  2 ;  Luke  xix.  44]. 
The  altar  is  the  altar  of  incense  adjacent  to  the  Temple  itself. 

2.  By  the  Gentiles  we  can  only  understand  the  Eomans,  who 
were  at  this  time  (A.D.  68)  undertaking  an  expedition  against 
Jerusalem. — The  holy  city  shall  they  tread  under  foot:  comp.  Luke 
xxi.  24. — Forty  and  two  months :  the  period  during  which,  accord- 
ing to  Daniel  (Dan.  vii.  25,  viii.  13  sq.,  ix.  27,  xii.  7),  the  oppres- 
sion of  the  Jewish  people  was  to  last. 

3.  My  two  witnesses :  i.e.  two  well-known  men  resident  at  the 
time  in  Jerusalem.  According  to  ver.  8  ["their  Lord"],  we  must 
understand  them  to  be  disciples  of  Jesus,  perhaps  the  last  of  the 
apostolic  circle.     The  1260  days  are  equal  to  the  42  months. 


254  EEFELATIOK  [xi.  3 — 13 

Hence  the  witnesses  are  to  prophesy  during  the  whole  period  of 
oppression, — In  sackcloth:  i.e.  in  clothing  of  coarse  material,  worn 
as  a  sign  of  grief  and  repentance  (Matt.  xi.  21). 

4.  The  two  witnesses  are  described  in  the  words  which  Zecha- 
riah  uses  of  Zerubbabel  and  the  high-priest  Joshua  (Zech.  iv.  3, 
11,  14).— [r/ic  God:  the  best  MSS.  read  "the  Lord."] 

5,  6.  In  miraculous  powers  the  two  witnesses  are  equal  to 
the  two  men  of  God,  Moses  and  Elijah,  who  performed  signs 
similar  to  those  which  are  here  mentioned  (Exod.  vii.  19;  1  Kings 
xvii.  1 ;  2  Kings  i.  10  sqq.). 

7.  "  The  beast  that  ascendeth  out  of  the  abyss :"  see  note  on 
xvii.  8. — The  word  "abyss"  must  be  understood  here  as  in  ix.  1. 

8.  Sodom  and  Egypt :  Jerusalem  is  so  called  because  of  its 
godlessness,  in  which  it  rivalled  the  inhabitants  of  Sodom  in  the 
days  of  Lot,  and  the  Egyptians  of  the  time  of  Moses.  Comp.  Is. 
i.  10,  iii.  9;  Jer.  xxiii.  14;  Ezek.  xvi.  48. — Our  Lord  should  be 
"  their  Lord." 

9.  Eead,  "  And  some  of  the  peoples  and  tribes  and  tongues 
and  Gentiles,"  &c. — To  lie  unburied  was  regarded  by  the  Hebrews 
as  a  grievous  disgrace. 

10.  It  was  a  custom  of  the  ancients,  on  the  occasion  of  any 
joyful  occurrence,  to  send  gifts  to  friends  and  relatives. — The 
prophets  tormented  them  that  dwelt  on  the  earth,  both  by  their 
preaching  of  repentance  and  also  by  the  miracles  they  performed 
in  punishment  of  the  people. 

11.  Entered  into  them:  Here  the  writer  speaks  of  the  past. 
Immediately  before  this  he  spoke  of  the  future  (vv.  7 — 10). 
The  reason  of  this  change  of  tense  is,  that  what  is  not  actually 
to  happen  until  some  future  time,  is  seen  by  the  seer  in  his 
vision  as  already  completed ;  and  so  he  often  passes  from  the 
future  to  the  past,  and,  conversely,  from  the  past  to  the  future. 
Compare,  further,  iv.  2  sq.  9  sq.,  ix.  1  sq.  6  sq.,  xiii.  7  sq.  12, 
xviii.  9  sq.  17,  xx.  7  sq.  9  sq.,  xxi.  9  sq.  14  sq.,  xxii.  1  sq. — The 
restoration  of  the  witnesses  to  life  is  after  Ezek.  xxxvii.  10. 

12.  In  a  cloud :  comp.  Acts  i.  9  ;  1  Thess.  iv.  17.  Their  ene- 
mies see  the  ascension  of  the  two  witnesses,  so  that  they  can 
have  no  doubt  that  they  have  been  carried  away  to  God. 

13.  Of  men  seven  thousand  (lit. "  names  of  men  seven  thousand"): 
This  would  not  be  a  tenth  part  of  the  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem, 


xi.  13 — xii.  3]  REVELATION.  255 

the  population  of  which  at  that  time  amounted  to  far  move  than 
70,000,  Seven  thousand  is  simply  a  round  number,  probably- 
suggested  to  the  apocalyptic  writer  by  the  history  of  Elijah 
(vv.  5  sq.).  As  at  that  time  Yahveh  would  only  spare  7000  true 
worshippers  (1  Kings  xix.  18),  so  here  he  slays  only  7000  unbe- 
lievers.— Gave  glory  to  the  God  of  heaven :  in  their  conversion 
to  Him  (comp.  xiv.  7,  xvi.  9,  xix.  7).  A  comparatively  light  visi- 
tation is  sufficient  to  turn  the  people  of  Israel  to  the  gospel, 
whereas  the  defiance  and  obstinacy  of  the  Gentiles  cannot  be 
overcome  even  by  the  severest  judgments  (see  xvi.  9,  11,  21). 

14.  The  second  woe  embraces  the  visitation  by  the  troops  of 
horsemen  (ix.  14 — 21)  and  the  visitation  of  Jerusalem  (ver.  13). 
The  third  woe  consists  of  the  plagues  described  in  ch.  xvi. 

xi.  15 — 19.   The  seventh  trumpet, 

15.  The  kingdoms  of  this  world,  &c.,  should  be,  "  The  kingdom 
of  this  world  is  become  (the  kingdom)  of  our  Lord  and  of  His 
Christ,"  &c. 

[16.  Seats :  see  note  on  ii.  13.] 

17.  And  art  to  come  should  be  omitted. 

19.  Ark  of  his  testament  should  be  "  ark  of  his  covenant." — 
The  earthly  ark  of  the  covenant,  like  the  pot  of  manna,  was  lost 
when  Jerusalem  was  destroyed  by  the  Chaldeans.  According  to 
the  rabbinical  belief,  the  ark,  like  the  pot  of  manna  [see  note 
on  ii.  17],  was  to  appear  again  in  tlie  Messianic  kingdom.  Its 
appearance  now  denotes,  therefore,  that  this  kingdom  is  in  course 
of  being  realized. — And  an  earthquake  should  be  omitted. 

xii.  The  woman  with  the  child,  and  the  dragon. 

1.  Wonder :  "  sign." — The  woman  (as  appears  from  ver.  5)  is 
the  mother  of  the  Messiah.  Since,  however,  all  those  who  keep 
the  commandments  of  God  and  have  the  testimony  of  Jesus 
Christ  (ver.  17)  are  her  children,  she  is  not  the  physical  but  the 
spiritual  mother,  the  community  of  God  from  which  the  Messiah 
proceeded.  As  this  community  of  God  is  identical  with  the 
true  Israel  (see  note  on  ii.  9),  she  appears  with  a  crown  adorned 
with  twelve  stars,  which  signify  the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel 
(comp.  Gen.  xxxvii.  9). 

2.  Comp.  Micah  iv.  10. 

3.  Wonder :  "  sign." — Crowns  should  be  "  diadems." — Accord- 


256  REVELATION.  [xii.  3 — 17 

iiig  to  ver.  9,  the  dragon  is  the  devil.  He  appears  with  the 
insignia  of  the  great  power  of  this  world,  which  is  in  his  service 
(see  xiii.  1). — Red :  the  colour  of  blood  (comp.  vi.  4,  xvii.  3  sq.). 

4.  Comp.  Dan.  viii.  10,  which  is  here  carried  out  into  further 
detail. 

5.  Who  was  to  rule,  &c.,  should  be,  "  who  shall  rule  (lit.  tend 
as  a  shepherd)  all  nations,"  &c. — The  seer  applies  to  the  son 
of  the  woman  words  of  the  second  Psalm  (ver.  9),  which  was 
interpreted  Messianically,  and  so  undoubtedly  shows  that  the 
child  is  the  Messiah. — A7id  her  child  was  caught  up  unto  God,  &c. : 
This  evidently  refers  to  the  ascension  of  Jesus. 

6.  See  note  on  ver.  14,  where  this  verse  is  repeated. 

7.  Michael  (i.e.  "Who  is  like  God?")  is  one  of  the  chief  of  the 
angel  princes.     See  Dan.  x.  13,  21,  xii.  1 ;  Jude  9. 

9.  The  dragon  is  called  the  old  serpent  because,  in  the  primi- 
tive age  of  the  world  in  Paradise,  he  seduced  man  under  the 
form  of  a  serpent  (Gen.  iii.  1  sqq.).  The  Greek  word  diabolos 
(from  which  the  word  Devil  is  derived)  signifies  "  slanderer."  The 
Hebrew  Satan  signifies  "  adversary."  Satan  appears  as  a  slan- 
derer in  Job  i.  6  sqq.,  ii.  1  sqq. ;  as  an  adversary  in  Zech.  iii.  1. 

10.  Eead,  "  And  I  heard  a  loud  voice,  saying  in  heaven,  Now 
is  come  the  salvation  and  the  strength  and  the  kingdom  to  our 
God  [lit.  "of  our  God"],  and  the  power  to  His  Christ"  [lit.  "of 
his  Christ"]. 

11.  The  martyrs  have  an  important  share  in  the  victory  over 
Satan. 

12.  Woe  to  the  inhahiters,  &c.,  should  be,  "  Woe  to  the  earth 
and  to  the  sea." — A  short  ti7ne:  because  "the  time  is  at  hand" 
(i.  3),  Christ  cometh  quickly  (xxii.  20).     [Comp.  also  x.  6.] 

14.  See  note  on  viii.  13. — Eead,  "And  to  the  woman  were 
given  the  two  wings  of  the  great  eagle,"  &c. — The  arid  toilderness, 
with  its  thousand  dangers,  is  a  symbol  of  forsaking  and  misery 
(comp.  xvii.  3). — The  three-and-a-half  times  are  the  1260  days 
(ver.  6),  after  Dan.  vii.  25.  By  a  time,  however,  we  must  here 
understand,  not  a  single  year,  but  a  period  of  ten  years.  The 
community  of  God  has  passed  three-and-a-half  decades  in  the 
wilderness  (i.e.  in  retirement  and  oppression)  since  Jesus  was 
carried  up  to  the  throne  of  God. 

17  sq.  As  the  dragon  cannot  slay  the  mother  of  the  Messiah 


xii.  17— xiii.  8]  REVELATION.  257 

any  more  than  he  can  slay  the  Messiah  himself,  he  sets  forth  to 
fight  against  her  children,  the  Christian  communities  scattered 
throughout  the  world. 

xiii.  1 — 10.  The  first  least. 

1.  Read,  "  And  he  stood  upon  the  sand  of  the  sea.  And  I  saw 
a  beast  rise  up  out  of  the  sea  having  ten  horns  and  seven  heads, 
and  upon  his  horns  ten  diadems,  and  upon  his  heads  names  of 
blasphemy." — The  dragon  goes  down  to  the  sea  to  summon  one 
of  his  allies,  who  immediately  appears.  The  beast  comes  up  out 
of  the  sea,  because  it  was  the  Hebrew  belief  that  the  sea  was 
connected  with  under-world,  the  abyss  (see  xi.  7).  The  meaning 
of  the  figure  of  the  beast  must  be  sought  in  ch.  xvii.,  where  it  is 
described  in  no  ambiguous  terms  as  the  figure  of  the  Eoman 
empire. — On  the  seven  heads  and  the  ten  horns,  see  xvii.  7  sqq. — 
"Names  of  blaspliemy:"  after  Dan.  vii.  8,  xi.  36.  The  Eoman 
emperors  claimed  the  presumptuous  titles  of  "Augustus,"  Gr. 
"Sebastos,"  i.e.  worthy  of  worship,  and  "Divus,"  i.e.  divine,  and 
they  frequently  had  divine  honours  paid  to  them. 

2.  In  the  Book  of  Daniel  (ch.  vii.),  the  four  successive  great 
monarchies  of  the  world  are  represented  under  the  forms  of  a 
lion,  a  bear,  a  leopard,  and  a  fourth  beast  with  ten  horns.  As 
the  Eoman  empire  had  absorbed  all  preceding  monarchies,  its 
symbol  is  here  compounded  of  these  four  forms. — And  the  dragon 
gave  him  his  jMiver,  &c. :  The  Eoman  empire  appears  to  the  seer 
as  a  creation  of  the  devil. — [Seat :  see  note  on  ii.  13.] 

3.  The  head  that  is  fatally  wounded  and  then  healed  again  is 
Nero.     See  note  on  ver.  18,  and  Introd.  pp.  227  sq. 

5.  To  continue  should  be  "  to  act"  or  "  to  work." — Forty -two 
months  =  three-and-a-half  times,  i.e.  the  period  borrowed  from 
Daniel  (Dan.  vii.  25,  xii.  7),  and  so  frequently  mentioned  in  the 
Eevelation  as  the  appointed  period. 

6.  The  tahernacle  of  God  is  heaven.     Comp.  xxi.  3. 

7.  /Stimfe  =  Christians. — [And  it  loas  given  tmto  him  to  make 
war  with  the  saints  and  to  overcome  them :  Two  of  the  best  MSS. 
omit  this.] — All  Jcindreds  should  be  "  all  tribes  and  peoples." 

8.  Eead,  "And  all  that  dwell  upon  the  earth  will  worship 
him,  whose  names  are  not  written  from  the  foundation  of  tlie 
world  in  the  book  of  life  of  the  Lamb  that  was  slain." — The  book 

VOL.  III.  s 


258  REVELATION.  [xiii.  8 — 14 

of  life :  see  note  on  iii.  5.  Those  whose  names  are  entered  in 
this  book  have  been  enrolled  in  it  from  the  beginning  of  the 
world,  i.e.  they  have  from  the  beginning  been  appointed  (pre- 
destined) to  salvation. 

9.  The  usual  formula  when  the  seer  desires  to  call  attention 
to  anything  of  special  importance.     See  note  on  ii.  7. 

10.  As  the  Eoman  authorities  have  dealt  with  the  Christians 
(see  ii.  10,  13),  so  shall  it  be  with  themselves. — Here  (i.e.  in  the 
persecution  which  has  been  pointed  out  in  ver.  7)  what  is  re- 
quired of  the  Christians  is  ^:>ai5i(;';tc(3  and  faith.  And  what  the 
writer  of  the  Eevelation  means  by  patience  and  faith  is  faithful 
and  steadfast  adherence  to  Christianity. — [There  is  some  uncer- 
tainty about  the  reading  of  the  Greek  here.  Alford  adopts  the 
reading,  "  If  any  one  is  for  captivity,  into  captivity  he  goeth ; 
if  any  one  is  to  be  slain  with  the  sword,  with  the  sword  he  is  to 
be  slain."  This  would  make  the  meaning  of  the  verse  to  be,  that 
the  sufferings  of  the  Christians  are  appointed  for  them,  and  what 
they  have  to  do  is  to  be  patient  and  faithful.] 

xiii.  11 — 18.   The  seeond  least. 

11.  The  second  of  Satan's  allies  resembles  in  outward  appear- 
ance a  harmless  lamb  (comp.  Matt.  vii.  15),  but  speaks  as  seduc- 
tively as  the  serpent  of  paradise.  In  xvi.  13,  xix.  20,  xx.  10,  the 
false  prophet  appears  in  the  place  of  this  second  beast.  AVe 
must  not,  however,  suppose  that  this  false  prophet,  any  more 
than  the  first  beast,  represents  an  individual  person.  We  must 
regard  him  (and  therefore  the  second  beast  also)  as  an  embodi- 
ment of  the  pretended  prophets  in  the  pay  of  the  Eomans.  The 
Eoman  emperors  delighted  in  surrounding  themselves  with  sooth- 
sayers and  astrologers,  who  flattered  their  vanity  and  promised 
them  the  fulfilment  of  their  most  audacious  desires.  Even  Jews 
lent  themselves  to  such  services  ;  and  not  long  ere  this  time,  Jose- 
phus,  himself  the  descendant  of  a  priestly  and  royal  family,  had 
declared  the  Eoman  general  Vespasian  to  be  the  expected  Messiah. 

12.  The  activity  of  the  false  prophets  is  devoted  to  the  sub- 
jection of  humanity  to  ISTero  on  his  return. 

13.  They  rival,  in  their  miracles,  Elijah  and  the  most  eminent 
of  the  disciples  of  Jesus  (comp.  xi.  5  sq.). 

14.  The  emperors  encouraged  the  erection  of  images  of  them- 


Xiii.  14—18]  REVELATION.  259 

selves,  which  were  worshipped  with  divine  honours  by  their 
subjects  as  representing  the  person  of  the  rulers  themselves. 
Caligula  even  attempted  to  set  up  his  statue  in  the  Temple  at 
Jerusalem. — He  had  j^oioer :  "it  was  given  to  him"  [so  lit.  both 
in  this  and  the  next  verse]. 

15.  He  luidfower :  "  it  was  given  to  him." — Stories  of  weeping, 
laughing  and  speaking  images  were  very  numerous  among  the 
ancients.  The  seer  expects  such  a  miracle  from  the  statues  of 
Nero,  into  which  the  false  prophets  will  breathe  a  spirit. — A7id 
cause  that  as  many  as  loould  not  worship  the  image  of  the  beast 
should  he  killed :  In  the  persecutions  of  the  Christians,  those  who 
acknowledged  themselves  to  be  Christians  were  required  by  the 
Eoman  authorities  to  worship  the  image  of  the  emperor,  or  to 
offer  sacrifice  to  it.     Eefusal  to  do  this  was  punished  by  death. 

16,  17.  The  antichrist  appears  in  everything  as  the  caricature 
of  the  Christ,  and  a  mocking  imitator  of  him  in  all  he  does.  So 
here  he  apes  Christ's  marking  of  his  adherents  (comp.  vii.  3  sqq.). 
Even  now  no  man  can  buy  or  sell  without  being  compelled  to 
handle  the  image  of  the  emperor  stamped  upon  the  coins.  Much 
less  will  it  be  possible  to  do  so  when  the  antichrist  has  claimed 
all  the  human  race  as  his  own. — To  receive  should  be  "  that  one 
should  give  them." — The  inark  or  the  name  of  the  least  should  be 
"  the  mark,  the  name  of  the  beast." 

18.  The  reader  is  directed  to  the  indication  in  reference  to  the 
beast  which  follows,  and  for  the  understanding  of  which  wisdom 
is  necessary.  The  number  of  the  beast  is  the  number  of  a  man, 
i.  e.  it  represents  a  man  (and  not  any  abstraction,  as,  for  example, 
the  Eoman  empire).  For  a  right  understanding  of  this,  it  is 
necessary  to  bear  in  mind  that,  both  among  the  Greeks  and  the 
Hebrews,  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  were  used  to  denote  numbers. 
Hence  we  must  take  such  letters  as  will,  when  used  as  numbers, 
make  up  666  (either  in  the  Greek  or  the  Hebrew  alphabet)  as 
the  letters  of  the  name  in  question.  The  solution  of  the  riddle 
is  "Neron  Kesar,"  the  Hebrew  form  of  the  Latin  "JSTero  Caesar" 
(  =  emperor  ISTero).  The  vowels  e  and  a  are  not  expressed  in  the 
ancient  Hebrew  writing.  The  number  represented  by  NeKON 
KeSaK  would  be  %QQ,  thus : 

N      K     0     N"      K      S      E 
50  +  200  +  6  +  50  +  100  +  60  +  200  -  666. 
s2 


260  REVELATION.  [xiv.  1 — 10 

xiv.  1 — 5.   The  Lamb,  and  they  that  are  his. 

The  Messiah  appears  upon  Mount  Zion  with  those  that  are 
his,  viz.  the  144,000  Israelites,  the  sealing  of  whom  is  recounted 
in  vii.  3  sqq.,  while  the  innumerable  multitude  of  the  Gentiles  is 
omitted  here  altogether.  In  opposition  to  the  ungodly,  who  bear 
the  mark  of  the  beast,  they  are  marked  with  the  name  of  God, 
which  has  been  imprinted  upon  them  when  they  were  sealed. 

1.  Eead,  "And  I  saw,  and  behold  the  Lamb  stood  on  the  Mount 
Sion,  and  with  him  an  hundred  and  forty-four  thousand,  having 
liis  name  and  the  name  of  his  Father  written  on  their  foreheads." 

2.  And  I  heard  the  voice  of  harpers,  &c. :  "  And  the  voice  which 
I  heard  was  as  the  voice  of  harpers  playing  [lit.  harping]  upon 
their  harps." 

3.  Eead,  "And  they  sing  a  new  song,"  &c. — A  new  song: 
comp.  V.  9. — In  connection  with  the  thought  that  only  those 
who  had  been  sealed  could  learn  the  song,  comp.  i.  17. — [TAe 
four  leasts :  see  note  on  iv.  6.] 

4.  Comp.  1  Cor.  vii.  1. — Being  the  first-fruits :  "  to  be  the  first- 
fruits." 

5.  Comp.  Zeph.  iii.  13.— [M  guile:  The  best  MSS.  have  "no 
lie."] — Before  the  throne  of  God  should  be  omitted. 

xiv.  6 — 13.  TJie  announeement  of  the  judgment. 

6.  In  the  midst  of  heaven :  see  note  on  viii.  13. — Kindred : 
"  tribe." 

8.  [Eead,  "  And  there  followed  another  angel,  a  second,"  &c.] 
Bahglon:  see  note  on  xvi.  19. — The  song  of  triumph  here  is  from 
Is.  xxi.  9. — The  wine  of  the  ivrath  should  be  "the  fiery  wine." — 
Fornication :  According  to  the  usage  of  the  Old  Testament,  this 
means  idolatry  ;  see  note  on  ii.  22.  On  account  of  its  intoxicat- 
ing and  infatuating  effect,  it  is  also  spoken  of  here  as  wine,  or 
fiery  wine.     Comp.  Is.  li.  17. 

9,  10.  Eead,  "  And  another  angel,  a  third,  followed  them,"  &c. 
—  Wine  should  be  "  fiery  wine."—  Holy  should  be  omitted. — As 
their  punishment,  the  worshippers  of  the  beast  shall  be  made  to 
drink  a  very  different  fiery  wine  from  that  of  Babylon,  viz.  the 
wine  of  the  wrath  of  God,  which  brings  not  pleasure  but  pain. 
Comp.  Ps.  Ixxv.  8.  This  wine  is  unmixed,  i.e.  in  its  full  strength 
and  intoxicating  power.     The  ancients  usually  drank  their  wine 


xiv.  10 — XV.  4]  REVELATION.  261 

mixed  with  water.     The  place  of  torment  is  the  burning  lake  of 
sulphur. 

11.  Comp.  Is.  xxxiv.  9  sq. 

12.  Comp.  xiii.  10. — Here  are  should  be  omitted. 

13.  Eead,  "And  I  heard  a  voice  from  heaven  saying  unto  me, 
Write,  From  henceforth  blessed  are  the  dead  which  die  in  the 
Lord.  Yea,  saith  the  spirit,  they  shall  rest  from  their  labours, 
but  their  works  do  follow  them." — From  henceforth :  since  it  is 
only  now  that  those  who  could  disturb  the  blessedness  of  those 
who  had  fallen  asleep  in  the  Lord,  have  been  brought  to  nought. 
The  works /o//o;^  the  dead,  i.e.  they  are  a  possession  for  eternity. 

xiv.  14 — 20.  The  harvest  of  the  judgment. 

14.  The  appearance  of  the  Messiah  is  described  after  Dan. 
vii.  13.  He  bears  a  sickle  because  he  is  coming  to  the  harvest. — 
The  Son  of  man :  "  a  son  of  man." 

15.  Is  ripe :  "  is  become  dry "  [so  lit.]. — The  meaning  of  the 
cry  of  the  angel  appears  from  ver.  20.  We  have  already  found 
in  the  Old  Testament  the  destruction  of  an  army  on  the  field  of 
battle  spoken  of  under  the  figure  of  reaping  the  harvest,  or  tread- 
ing out  grapes  (Is.  xvii.  5,  Ixiii.  1  sqq. ;  Joel  iii.  13). 

20.  Outside  the  city,  the  wine-press  was  trodden  when  the 
harvest  was  gathered  in.  The  figure  and  the  thing  represented 
by  it  here  coalesce.  The  mention  of  the  blood  and  of  the  horses 
shows  plainly  that  what  is  meant  is  a  battle. — The  Greek  stadion 
measured  202^  yards  [fairly  rendered  by  the  ILnglhh.  furlong  = 
220  yards].  The  distance  here  given  would  accordingly  be  about 
184  English  miles.  This,  or  more  exactly  1664  stadia  [  =  191 
miles],  was  the  length  of  Palestine,  according  to  the  ancient 
reckoning.  Consequently  the  decisive  battle  is  to  take  place  in 
Palestine  and  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Jerusalem  ;  for  "  the  city," 
without  further  designation,  especially  when  preceded  by  the 
mention  of  Mount  Sion  (ver.  1),  can  be  no  other  than  Jerusalem. 

XV.  1 — 4.  The  seven  angels,  and  the  song  of  praise  sung  hy  the  victors. 

2.  And  over  his  marh  should  be  omitted. — The  harps :  "  harps." 

3,  4.  The  song  of  Moses  is  the  thanksgiving  for  deliverance 
from  the  hand  of  the  Egyptians  (Exod.  xv.  1 — 21).  It  is  not 
quite  so  clear  what  the  seer  means  by  the  song  of  the  Lamb:  Per- 
haps it  may  have  been  some  song  of  thanksgiving  to  Jesus,  known 


2G2  REVELATION.  [xv.  4— xvi.  12 

to  the  seer's  readers,  but  unknown  to  us. — Great  and  marvellous, 
&c. :  This  adoration  is  compiled  from  Ps.  cxi.  2,  cxix.  75,  cxlv.  17 ; 
Jer.  X.  7;  Ps.  Ixxxvi.  9. — Saints  should  be  "the  Gentiles"  [i.e. 
"  the  nations."     Two  ancient  MSS.  read  "the  ages"]. 

XV.  5 — xvi.  1.  The  seven  vials  of  loratli. 

5.  The  tabernacle  of  the  testimony:  "the  tent  of  testimony;" 
i.e.  the  tabernacle,  which  was  believed  to  be  hidden  in  heaven 
[comp.  ii.  17]. 

6.  The  dress  of  the  angels  is  that  of  priests  (comp.  Exod. 
xxviii.  39  sqq. ;  Levit.  vi.  10). 

[7.  Beasts :  see  note  on  iv.  6.] 

8.  Comp.  Exod.  xl.  34 ;  Is.  vi.  4. 

xvi.  1.  Out  of  the  tcmj^le  should  be  omitted.  [The  authority 
of  the  MSS.  is  in  favour  of  retaining  these  words.] 

xvi.  2 — 9.  TJie  first  four  vials. 
2.  The  plagues  described  in  this  and  the  following  verses  (as 
far  as  ver.  21)  are  in  imitation  of  the  Egyptian  plagues  (Exod. 
vii. — X.). 

5.  [Eead,  "  And  I  heard  the  angel  of  the  waters  say,  Thou 
art  righteous,  thou  who  art  and  wast,  the  Holy  One,  because 
thou  didst  judge  thus."] — The  angel  of  the  waters  is  the  guardian 
angel  of  the  waters.  The  later  Jews  supposed  that  there  were 
guardian  angels  of  water,  fire  (comp.  xiv.  18),  hail,  light,  &c. 

6.  The  blood  of  the  saints  and  prophets  was  shed  in  the  great 
Koman  persecution  of  the  Christians.  This  verse  alone  would 
make  it  probable  that  the  seven  plagues  concern  the  Gentiles 
only,  and  not  the  Jews ;  and  ver.  9-  raises  this  probability  to  a 
certainty. 

7.  Eead,  "  And  I  heard  the  altar  say,"  &c. 

[8.   Unto  him :  Most  translators  render,  "  nnto  it,"  i.e.  the  sun.] 

9.  Men :  i.  e.  Gentile  humanity,  for  the  Jews  have  already 
repented  (xi.  13)  and  given  glory  to  God. 

xvi.  10,  11.  The  fifth  vial 

10.  The  seat  [or  "throne;"  see  note  on  ii.  13]  of  the  least  (i.e. 
of  Nero)  is  the  city  of  Eome. —  Was :  "  became." 

xvi.  12 — 21.  The  sixth  vial. 
12.  The  kings  of  the  east:  "the  kings  from  the  east." — The 


xvi.  12—21]  REVELATION.  263 

boundary  river  Euphrates  (see  note  on  ix.  14)  points  to  the  Par- 
thians,  whose  princes  we  must  understand  by  the  phrase,  "the 
kings  from  the  east."  We  find  a  drying  up  of  water  for  a  similar 
purpose  in  Is.  xi.  15  sq. 

13.  The  false  prophet  appeared  above  under  the  figure  of  the 
second  beast  (xiii.  11  sqq.). 

14,  15.  On  the  spirits  of  the  demons,  and  what  is  here  said 
about  them,  comp.  1  Kings  xxii.  21 — 23. — [Of  the  earth  and : 
omitted  in  the  best  MSS.]. — Tlie  great  day  of  God  Almighty: 
The  day  of  the  decisive  battle,  when  all  hostile  powers  shall  be 
annihilated  (comp.  MaL  iv.  5).  The  mention  of  the  last  day 
reminds  John  of  a  saying  of  Jesus  concerning  its  coming  (Luke 
xii.  39),  and  gives  him  occasion  to  warn  his  readers. 

16.  Eead,  "And  they  gathered  them  together  into  the  place 
called  Harmagedon." — Harmagedon  means  Mountain  of  Mage- 
don,  Magedon  being  the  Greek  form  of  the  Hebrew  Megiddo. 
At  Megiddo  the  Midianites  were  defeated  by  the  Israelites  under 
Baralv  and  Deborah  (Judges  v.  19).  At  a  later  date,  the  Israel- 
ites under  king  Josiah,  who  received  his  death-wound  there, 
were  defeated  by  the  Egyptians  in  the  same  place  (2  Kings 
xxiii.  29  sq. ;  2  Chron.  xxxv.  20  sqq.).  John's  meaning,  how- 
ever, is  not  that  the  decisive  battle  will  actually  take  place  at 
Megiddo.  On  the  contrary,  he  expects  it  before  Jerusalem  (see 
note  on  xiv.  20).  "What  he  here  means  is,  that  the  slaughter  of 
the  enemy  will  be  as  terrible  as  that  of  the  Israelites  was  on 
that  memorable  battle-field.  Zechariah  shows  us  what  an  im- 
pression that  slaughter  had  made,  when  he  compares  the  lamen- 
tations at  the  last  judgment  to  the  lamentations  in  the  valley  of 
Megiddo  (Zech.  xii.  11),  In  connection  with  this  passage  we  may 
also  compare  the  allegorical  application  of  the  names  Bileam 
and  Jezebel,  which  we  have  already  had  (ii.  14,  20). 

17.  Of  heaven  should  be  omitted. — It  is  done:  i.e.  all  that 
had  to  be  done  immediately  before  the  last  judgment. 

19.  The  great  city:  i.e.  Eome,  which  immediately  afterwards 
is  called  Babylon,  inasmuch  as  it  has  rivalled  the  ancient  Babylon 
in  idolatry  and  hostility  to  the  people  of  God. — The  ivine  of  the 
fierceness  of  his  tvrath  should  be  "  the  fiery  wine  of  his  wrath." 
Comp.  Is.  li.  22. 

21.  The  Gentiles  persist  to  the  last  in  their  refusal  to  repent, 


264  BEVELATION.  [xvi.  21— xvii.  10 

wliereas  the  Jews  were  converted  immediately  after  the  earth- 
quake that  was  sent  as  a  visitation  upon  them  (xi.  13) 

xvii.  The  tooman  upon  the  beast  with  seven  heads. 

1.  Upon  tnany  waters :  comp.  Jer.  li.  13. 

2.  Comp.  xiv.  8. 

3.  4.  In  the  spirit :  comp.  i.  10,  iv.  2,  xxi.  10. — TJie  wilderness 
should  be  "a  wilderness." — Scarlet  is  the  colour  of  blood. — Purple, 
the  colour  worn  by  princes  and  persons  of  high  rank,  indicates 
despotism. — A  golden  cup:  comp.  Jer.  li.  7. — Her  fornication 
should  be  "  the  fornication  of  the  earth."  [The  MS.  authority 
is  in  favour  of  the  reading  of  A.V.,  and  Tischendorf,  who  adopted 
the  reading  here  given,  afterwards  relinquished  it  again.] 

5.  Eead,  "  And  upon  her  forehead  was  a  name  written,  a 
mystery,  Babylon,"  &c. — Eoman  ladies  of  high  rank  frequently 
had  their  names  worked  in  gold  upon  a  frontlet,  a  custom 
which  they  adopted  in  imitation  of  courtezans. — A  mystery :  i.e. 
unintelligible  to  any  except  those  to  whom  the  meaning  of  the 
name  of  Babylon  is  disclosed  by  a  revelation  from  on  high. 

6.  The  saints  and  the  martyrs  (i.e.  "witnesses")  of  Jesus  are 
the  Christians  who  were  murdered  in  Rome  in  the  year  64 — 
[  Wondered  ....  admiration :  similar  words  in  the  Greek.] 

[7.  Marvel :  same  word  as  wondered  in  ver.  6.] 

8.  Tlie  least  that  thou  scavest  vjas  and  is  not,  &c. :  A  description 
that  exactly  fits  Nero,  who  was  emperor,  and  then  disappeared, 
leaving  no  trace  behind,  but  will  return  from  the  kingdom  of  the 
dead  in  order  that  he  may  thereupon  be  delivered  up  to  perdi- 
tion by  Christ.  It  must  of  course  be  admitted  that  in  an  earlier 
passage  the  beast  denoted  the  Roman  imperial  power ;  and  again, 
below  (in  ver.  10),  Nero  is  represented  by  the  fifth  horn  of  the 
beast.  Since,  however,  the  godlessness  and  hatred  of  the  Chris- 
tians which  was  shown  by  the  Roman  empire  culminates  in  Nero, 
and  is  incorporated,  as  it  were,  in  him,  he  as  an  individual  person 
might  also  be  represented  by  the  whole  beast. — And  yet  is  should 
be  "  and  shall  be  present." 

9.  Read,  "  And  here  is  the  intellect  which  has  wisdom,"  &c. : 
i.  e.  intelligence  is  necessary  for  the  proper  understanding  of  the 
explanation  which  follows. 

10.  Read,  "  And  they  are  seven  kings,"  &c. — The  seven  heads 


xvii.  10 — 18]  REVELATION.  205 

have,  according  to  the  seer,  a  double  meaning.  They  signify, 
first,  the  seven  hills  on  which  stands  the  city  of  Kome  (hence 
called  by  the  later  Eomans  " septicollis,"  or  "the  seven-hilled") ; 
and,  secondly,  the  seven  kings  (or,  as  we  call  them,  "emperors") 
who  rule  over  Eome  until  the  time  of  the  great  judgment.  John's 
expectation  of  seven  is  connected  with  the  importance  which  he 
attached  to  the  sacred  number  seven. — Five  are  fallen :  viz. 
Augustus  (B.C.  34— A.D.  14),  Tiberius  (A.D.  14—37),  Caligula 
(A.D.  37—41),  Claudius  (A.D.  41—54),  Nero  (A.D.  54—68).  One 
is:  i.e.  Galba  (ob.  Jan.  15th,  69).  The  other  must  come,  in  order 
to  complete  the  sacred  number,  but  can  only  remain  a  short  s'pace, 
since  the  final  judgment  is  already  near,  and  before  that  comes 
Nero  is  to  ascend  the  throne  again. 

11.  Nero  is  one  of  the  seven  (ver.  10),  but  he  may  also  be 
regarded  as  the  eighth,  inasmuch  as  he  once  more  succeeds  to 
dominion  after  the  seventh.     \Even  he  :  lit.  "  he  himself  also."] 

12.  The  ten  horns  (after  Dan.  vii.  24)  are  ten  kings,  viz.  the 
kings  from  the  east  (xvi.  12). — One  hour:  i.e.  a  short  time. 
Comp.  Gal.  ii.  5. 

13.  The  Parthian  princes  will  ally  themselves  with  Nero. 

14.  Lord  of  lords,  &c. :  comp.  xix.  16.  The  Messiah  is  the 
true  King  of  kings,  in  opposition  to  the  Parthian  princes  who 
used  to  appropriate  to  themselves  this  proud  title. — [And  they 
that  are  with  hivi,  &c. :  lit.  "And  they  that  are  with  him  called 
chosen  and  faithful,"  i.e.  They  that  are  with  him  called,  chosen 
and  faithful,  will  overcome  with  the  Lamb.] 

15.  Comp.  Is.  viii.  7  sqq. 

16.  Eead,  "  And  the  ten  horns  which  thou  hast  seen  and  the 
beast,"  &c. — Nero  and  the  Parthian  princes  allied  with  him  will 
destroy  Eome.  Metaphor  and  the  actual  matter  here,  as  else- 
where, are  mixed  up  together  (comp.  xiv.  20,  xix.  17  sq.).  The 
stripping  naked  and  devouring  refer  to  the  woman ;  the  making 
desolate  and  burning,  to  the  city. 

17.  And  give  their  kingdom  unto  the  least :  as  Nero  expected, 
in  pursuance  of  a  prophecy.     See  Introd.  p.  228. 

18.  At  the  time  of  the  composition  of  the  Apocalypse,  the 
great  city  of  Eome  alone  had  dominion  over  the  kings  of  the 
earth,  so  that  this  description  and  the  mark  given  in  ver.  9  made 
it  perfectly  recognizable  by  every  reader  of  the  Eevelation. 


266  .REVELATION.  [xviii.  2—19 

xviii.  Song  of  rejoicing  over  the  fall  of  the  imperial  city. 
2.  The  fall  of  the  imperial  city  is  so  unalterably  determined 
by  God,  that  the  angel  can  begin  a  song  of  triumph  at  the  outset. 
It  echoes  Is.  xiii.  19  sqq.,  comp.  also  Is.  xxxiv.  11  sqq. — "A 
habitation  of  devils,"  &c. :  Desert  and  waste  places  were  regarded 
by  the  Hebrews  as  the  favourite  dwelling-places  of  evil  spirits 
(comp.  Is.  xiii.  21,  xxxiv.  14 ;  Tobit  viii.  3  ;  Baruch  iv.  35).  Birds 
that  inhabited  such  regions  were  unclean  according  to  the  Mosaic 
law  (see  Levit.  xi.  13  sqq.). 

4.  Comp.  Jer.  li.  6,  45 ;  Is.  xlviii.  20,  lii.  11. — From  this  pas- 
sage we  may  infer  that  at  the  time  of  the  composition  of  the 
Eevelation  there  was  still  (or  perhaps  we  should  rather  say, 
there  was  again)  a  Christian  community  in  Eome,  notwithstand- 
ing the  bloody  persecution  of  the  year  64. 

5.  Comp.  Jer.  li,  9. — Have  reached  should  be  "reached"  [lit. 
"clave"]. 

6.  Comp.  Ps.  cxxxvii.  8. 
■    7.  Comp.  Is.  xlvii.  7—9. 

8.   Who  judgeth  her  should  be  "  who  hath  judged  her." 

9  sqq.  For  the  lamentation  which  here  follows,  comp.  Ezek. 

xxvi.  16—18,  xxvii.  5—7,  28—36. 

10.  That  great  city,  &c. :  "  The  great  city  Babylon,  the  strong 

city!"  &c. 

12.  Thyine  wood:  some  kind  of  wood  having  a  sweet  scent, 
probably  white  cedar. 

13.  Eead,  "And  cinnamon  and  amomum  and  incense  and 
ointments  ....  and  horses  and  chariots,  and  bodies  and  souls  of 
men." — "  Amomum  :"  a  costly  pomade,  prepared  from  an  Asiatic 
plant. — "  Bodies  :"  In  the  ancient  world,  slaves  were  not  regarded 
as  persons,  but  as  chattels ;  the  objection  here  expressed  to  a 
trade  in  souls  could  only  arise  on  Christian  ground. 

14.  Dainty :  properly,  "complete,  faultless"  [lit.  fat]. 

17.  And  every  shipmaster,  &c.,  should  be,  "And  all  pilous,  and 
all  travelling  merchants,  and  all  sailors,  and  all  that  trade  by 
sea,  stood  afar  off." — Stood  afar  off,  while  in  ver.  15  we  have 
shall  stand  afar  off:  On  this  change  of  tense,  see  note  on  xi.  11. 

18.  What  city,  &c.,  should  be,  "  Who  was  like  unto  the  great 
city?" 

19.  Comp.  Ezek.  xxvii.  30. 


xviii.  20— xix.  10]  REVELATION.  207 

20.  Read,  "  Eejoice  over  her,  thou  heaven,  and  ye  saints  and 
apostles  and  prophets,  for  God  hath  judged  your  judgment  upon 
her." — Comp.  Is.  xliv.  23. — "Your  judgment:"  i.e.  the  sentence 
which  she  passed  upon  you,  and  which  has  been  executed  upon 
you.  From  this  verse  it  is  probable  that  several  apostles  had 
been  put  to  death  by  the  Gentile  imperial  power. 

21.  The  symbolic  act  here  described  is  in  imitation  of  Is. 
li.  63  sq. 

22  sq.  Comp.  Jer.  xvi.  9,  xxv.  10  ;  Ezek.  xxvi.  13  ;  Is.  xxiv.  8. 

23.  {Candle  should  be  "  lamp."] — Thy  merchants  were  the  great 
men  of  the  earth :  comp.  Is.  xxiii.  8. — Deceived  =  "  led  astray." 

24.  Of  prophets  and  of  saints :  as  in  xvi.  6,  xvii.  6. 

xix,  1 — 8.  The  so7ig  of  triumph  of  the  community  in  heaven. 

1.  [Read,  "  After  these  things  I  heard  as  it  were  a  great  voice 
of  a  great  multitude  in  heaven,  saying.  Hallelujah ;  salvation 
and  glory  and  power  belong  to  our  God."] — "Hallelujah:"  i.e. 
praise  ye  Yahveli  (Jehovah),  a  common  form  of  praise,  especially 
in  the  Psalms  (Ps.  cvi.  48,  cxi.  1,  cxii.  1,  cxiii.  1,  &c.).  [In  A.V. 
it  is  translated  by  the  words.  Praise  ye  the  Loed.] 

2.  Comp.  Deut.  xxxii.  43. 

3.  {Alleluia :  only  the  Greek  form  of  Hallelujah,  as  in  ver.  1, 
and  so  elsewhere  where  it  occurs.] — Rose  up :  "riseth  up"  [so 
lit.]. — With  this  verse  comp.  xiv.  11 ;  Is.  xxxiv.  10. 

5.  Comp.  Ps.  cxxxiv.  1,  cxv.  13. — [Came  out  of  the  throne: 
Some  ancient  MSS.  read,  "  came  forth  from  the  throne."] 

6.  Comp.  Ezek.  i,  24. — Reigncth :  "  hath  taken  possession  of 
the  kingdom." 

7.  Comp.  Ps.  cxviii.  24. — In  the  Gospels  also  the  union  between 
the  Messiah  and  the  community  of  the  believers  is  set  forth 
under  the  figure  of  a  marriage  (Matt.  xxii.  2  sqq.,  xxv.  1  sqq.). 

8.  Read,  "  And  it  was  given  to  her  to  array  herself  in  fine 
linen  bright  and  clean.  For  the  righteous  acts  of  the  saints  are 
the  fine  linen." — The  righteous  acts  of  the  saints  appear  here  as 
the  adornment  of  the  community.  This  is  similar  to  the  Catholic 
doctrine  that  good  works  form  a  treasure  of  the  church. 

9.  10.  A  parenthetical  address  of  the  angel  to  the  seer.  John 
stands  upon  an  equality  with  the  angel  inasmuch  as  he  also  has 
the  testimony  of  Jesus  (see  note  on  i.  9).     This  testimony  con- 


2G8  REVELATION.  [xix.  10— XX.  2 

sists  in  the  spirit  of  prophecy  which  he  possesses  as  a  prophet 
(x.  11,  xxii.  9),  and  by  virtue  of  which  he  feels  himself  commis- 
sioned to  compose  his  Eevelation. 

xix.  11 — 16.  The  appearance  of  the  Messiah. 

11.  Comp.  vi.  2. — [Was  called:  better,  "is  called."] 

12.  Comp.  i.  14  sq.,  ii.  17. — [Read,  "  His  eyes  are  as  a  flame  of 
fire,  and  on  his  head  are  many  diadems,  and  he  hath  a  name 
written  that  no  man  knoweth  but  he  himself." — One  ancient 
MS.  reads,  "  names  written  ;"  and  one  reads,  "  and  he  hath  names 
written,  and  a  name  written  that  no  man  knoweth  but  he  himself."] 

13.  Comp.  Is.  Ixiii.  1  sqq. — [  Was  clothed :  better,  "is  clothed."] 
— Dipped  in:  "sprinkled  with"  [so  one  old  MS.]. —  The  Word  of 
God :  Christ  is  so  called  because  God  has  spoken  to  the  world 
through  him. 

[14.    Were :  better,  "  are."] 

15.  Comp.  xiv.  19  ;  Ps.  ii.  9  ;  Is.  Ixiii.  3.  \Jle  shall  rule  them: 
see  note  on  ii.  27.  In  the  Greek  there  is  special  emphasis  on  the 
pronoun  he.'] — And  he  treadeth,  &c.,  should  be,  "And  he  treadeth 
the  wine-press  of  the  fiery  wine  of  the  wrath  of  Almighty  God." 
[iZe  is  emphatic  here  also.] 

16.  The  name  (comp.  xvii.  14)  is  written  upon  the  part  of  the 
vesture  which  covers  the  thigh. 

xix.  17 — XX.  3.  TJie  victory  over  Satan  and  the  poioers  which 
are  in  his  service. 

17.  18.  Comp.  Ezek.  xxxix.  17 — 20. — In  the  midst  of  heaven: 
see  note  on  viii.  13. — [^The  suijper  of  the  great  God:  The  best 
MSS.  read,  "  the  great  supj)er  of  God."] — And  the  flesh  of  all  men, 
&c.,  should  be,  "  and  the  flesh  of  all  men,  both  free  and  bond  and 
small  and  great." 

19.  On  the  place  of  gathering  together,  see  xvi.  16. 

20.  Nero  and  the  lying  prophets,  who  were  in  his  pay,  receive 
their  reward. — Into  a  lake  of  fire  should  be  "into  the  lake  of 
fire."  John  speaks  of  it  as  the  lake,  though  he  has  not  men- 
tioned it  before,  inasmuch  as  the  idea  of  this  lake  was  familiar 
to  him  and  his  readers  (comp.  xiv.  10 ;  Is.  xxx.  33,  xxxiv.  9  sq. ; 
Dan.  vii.  11). 

XX.  1.  Comp.  ix.  1. 
2.  Comp.  xii.  9. 


XX.  4 — 12]  REVELATION.  269 

XX.  4 — 6.  The  first  resurrection  and  the  kingdom  of  a  thousand 
years  \_Mille7inium']. 

4.  Comp.  Dan.  vii.  9,  22,  27. — "  And  they  seated  themselves 
upon  them:"  i.e.  Christ  and  his  hosts  (xix.  14). — A  belief  in  the 
martyrs  taking  precedence  of  other  Christians,  such  as  John  here 
professes,  was  very  common  in  the  primitive  Christian  age. 
Especially  it  was  supposed  that  they  did  not,  like  the  rest  of  the 
dead,  descend  first  into  the  under-world,  but  that  after  death 
they  passed  directly  to  heaven.  The  reign  of  Christ  and  those 
who  are  his  begins  immediately  after  the  decisive  battle,  i.e.  on 
the  great  day  of  God  (xvi.  14) ;  but,  according  to  Ps.  xc.  4,  one 
day  of  God  is  equivalent  to  a  thousand  years  of  man,  and  John 
therefore  fixes  the  duration  of  this  reign  at  a  thousand  years. 
Whether  he  intends  this  to  be  taken  literally  or  not,  must  remain 
undecided. — Lived  should  be  "  came  to  life." 

5.  Lived  not  again :  "  came  not  to  life  again." — The  idea  of  a 
two-fold  resurrection  originates  in  the  later  Judaism. 

6.  The  second  death:  see  ver.  14,  and  comp.  also  ii.  11,  xxi.  8. 
— Priests  of  God,  &c. :  comp.  i.  6,  v.  10 ;  Is.  Ixi,  6. 

XX.  7 — 10.  Tlie  final  contests. 

8.  \_Quarters:  strictly,  "corners."] — Ezekiel  had  prophesied 
that,  in  the  last  days,  Gog,  the  prince  of  the  land  Magog,  would 
make  war  against  the  Israelites,  and  in  so  doing  would  meet  with 
his  own  ruin  (Ezek.  xxxviii.  xxxix.).  In  the  later  Jewish  theo- 
logy, the  two  names  Gog  and  Magog  were  used  for  the  Scythian 
tribes  which  dwelt  in  the  far  north,  on  the  very  edge,  as  it  was 
supposed,  of  the  earth.  [Comp.  "the  four  corners"  with  the 
going  up  on  the  breadth  of  the  earth  in  the  next  verse.] 

9.  The  beloved  city  is  Jerusalem,  where  the  saints,  mentioned 
in  ver.  4,  reign.  God  shows  how  dear  it  is  to  Him  by  His  direct 
intervention. 

10.  And  shcdl  be :  "  and  they  shall  be." 

XX.  11 — 15.   The  judgment  of  the  loorld. 

11.  Comp.  Dan.  vii.  9. — John  only  ventures  by  a  circumlocu- 
tion to  mention  the  Highest,  whose  gaze  heaven  and  earth  cannot 
bear. 

12.  Comr).  Dan.  vii.  10. — In  these  books  the  works  of  men 


270  REVELATION.  [xx.  12 — xxi.  11 

are  written,  whereas  in  the  Book  of  Life  are  the  names  of  those 
who  from  the  beginning  have  been  destined  to  salvation. 

13.  Hell  [Gr.  Hades] :  the  under- world,  as  in  i.  18,  vi.  8. 

14.  Death  and  hell  [Hades]  are  personified,  as  in  vi.  8. — Dying 
is  excluded  from  the  new  order  of  the  world,  so  that  no  place  of 
residence  for  the  dead  is  any  longer  required.  Paul  also  speaks  of 
death  as  the  last  enemy  that  is  to  be  overcome  (1  Cor.  xv.  26). 

15.  The  relation  of  the  books  (ver,  12)  to  the  Book  of  Life  is 
not  quite  clear.  In  ver.  12,  the  dead  are  judged  according  to 
their  works  (which  are  written  in  the  books).  Here,  however, 
all  whose  names  are  not  found  in  the  Book  of  Life,  i.  e.  who  have 
not  been  predestined  by  God  to  salvation,  are  doomed  to  per- 
dition. 

xxi.  1 — xxii.  5.  The  new  order  of  the  world.    The  eternal  kingdom 
of  God  and  of  Christ  in  the  new  Jerusalem. 

1.  A  renovation  of  the  world  had  been  foretold  by  the  ancient 
prophets  (Is.  Ixv.  17,  Ixvi.  22 ;  comp.  2  Pet.  iii.  13). 

2.  John  should  be  omitted. — The  earthly  Jerusalem  was  re- 
garded as  simply  a  copy  of  the  higher,  heavenly  Jerusalem 
(comp.  Gal.  iv.  26 ;  Heb.  xii.  22).  The  latter,  not  having  ap- 
peared upon  earth  before,  is  called  the  nciu  Jerusalem  (comp. 
iii.  12). 

3.  Comp.  Ezek.  xxxvii.  27 ;  2  Cor.  vi.  16.  The  expression 
tahernacle  was  suggested  by  the  tabernacle  of  the  covenant 
(comp.  xiii.  6). — Out  of  heaven:  "out  of  the  throne"  [so  two  of 
the  best  MSS.]. — And  he  their  God :  better,  "  as  their  God"  [some 
ancient  MSS.  omit  these  words  entirely]. 

4.  Comp.  Is.  XXV.  8. 

5.  Comp.  Is.  xliii.  19;  2  Cor.  v.  17. 

6.  Comp.  Is.  Iv.  1. 

7.  All  things  should  be  "  these  things." 

8.  The  fearful:  These  appear  as  the  opposite  to  those  that 
"  overcome "  (ver.  7).  They  are  such  as  did  not  dare  to  under- 
take the  fight  against  the  powers  that  are  hostile  to  God. — The 
abominable :  those  who  have  defiled  themselves  with  the  abomi- 
nations of  idolatry. 

10.  Comp.  Ezek.  xl.  2. 

11.  The  glory  of  God :   the  brilliant  light  which  surrounded 


Xxi.  11—27]  REVELATION.  271 

God,  and  which  in  the  new  Jerusalem  make  sun  and  moon  super- 
fluous (ver.  23). — [Her  light:  i.e.  that  which  gives  light  to  the 
city,  not  light  proceeding  from  it.] 

12.  The  seer  attaches  somewhat  the  same  importance  to  the 
number  twelve  (the  number  of  the  tribes  of  Israel)  as  he  does  to 
the  number  seven. — The  angels  are  the  guardian  angels  of  the 
gates  (comp.  i.  20,  xiv.  18,  xvi.  5).  [Lachmann,  following  one  of 
the  best  MSS.,  omits  the  words  and  at  the  gates  twelve  angels.] 

13.  Comp.  Ezek.  xlviii.  31—34. 

14.  Foundations:  i.e.  foundation-stones. —  The  names  should 
be  "  twelve  names." — On  the  distinction  here  assigned  to  the 
apostles,  comp.  Matt.  xix.  28.  It  refers  only  to  the  immediate 
disci|iles  of  Jesus.  Paul  is  not  acknowledged  in  the  Book  of 
Revelation  as  an  apostle. 

15.  Eead,  "And  he  that  talked  with  me  had  a  measure,  a 
golden  reed  to  measure  the  city,  &c." — Comp.  Ezek.  xl.  3. 

16.  Comp.  Ezek.  xlviii.  16. —  Twelve  thousand  furlongs :  12,000 
stadia  (see  note  on  xiv.  20)  =  1379  English  miles.  There  is,  how- 
ever, no  means  of  determining  whether  this  is  the  total  circum- 
ference or  the  length  of  one  side  of  the  city.  In  the  latter  case 
the  circumference  would  be  48,000  stadia  =  5516  miles.  The  city, 
being  of  the  same  extent  in  all  three  directions,  aj)pears  as  a 
monstrous  cube. 

17.  The  number  12  underlies  the  measurement  of  the  wall 
also  (144  =  12  X  12).  The  wall  is  disproportionately  low,  as  it  is 
no  longer  required  as  a  protection  against  hostile  attacks. — On 
the  measuring  angel,  comp.  Zech.  ii.  1,  2. — Eead,  "According  to 
the  measure  of  a  man,  which  is  that  of  the  angel,"  i.  e.  the  inha- 
bitants of  heaven  use  the  same  scale  of  measures  as  men. 

19,  20.  Comp.  Is.  liv.  11  sq. — The  precious  stones  are  the 
same  that  the  Jewish  high-priest  wore  upon  his  breast-plate 
(Exod.  xxviii.  17—20). 

21.  Comp.  Is.  liv.  12. 

23.  Comp.  Is.  Ix.  19  sq. — Had  no  need  should  be  "hath  no 
need." — Light :  "  lamp." 

24.  Eead,  "  And  the  Gentiles  shall  walk  in  the  light  of  it,  and 
the  kings  of  the  earth  do  bring  their  glory  into  it." — With  this 
and  the  following  verse,  comp.  Is.  Ix.  3 — 7. 

27.  Eead,  "And  there  shall  in  nowise  enter  into  it  anything 


272  REVELATION.  [xxi.  27 — xxii.  14 

common  [i.e.  unclean],  nor  that  doeth  abomination  and  a  lie." 
[The  words  here  rendered  "  doeth  abomination  and  a  lie,"  may 
perhaps  be  better  rendered  "  maketh  an  abomination  and  a  lie," 
i.e.  an  idol.] — Comp.  Is.  lii.  1. 

xxii.  1,  2.  The  new  Jerusalem  contains  a  stream  and  the  tree 
of  life,  which  were  the  distinguishing  characteristics  of  Paradise 
(Gen.  ii.  8  sqq.  Comp.  Exek.  xlvii.  1,  7,  12). — The  tree  of  life: 
"  a  tree  of  life." — Twelve  manner  of  fruits  should  be  "  twelve 
crops  of  fruit "  [lit.  "  twelve  fruits."] — "  For  the  healing  of  the 
Gentiles :"  Hence  it  appears  that  even  in  the  new  order  of  things 
the  Gentiles  are  not  yet  completely  healed. 

3.  Comp.  Zech.  xiv.  11. — {^And  there  shall  he  no  more  curse: 
"  there  shall  be  no  accursed  thing  any  more."  De  Wette. — But 
should  be  "  and."] 

5.  Comp.  Dan.  vii.  27. — Eead,  "And  there  shall  be  no  night 
any  more,  and  they  have  no  need  of  the  light  of  a  lamp,  nor  of 
the  light  of  the  sun,  for  the  Lord  God  shiueth  upon  them,  and 
they  shall  reign  for  ever  and  ever." 

xxii.  6 — 21.  Epilogue. 

6.  And  he  said  unto  me:  i.e.  the  angel,  speaking  in  the  name 
of  Jesus,  said. — And  the  Lord  God,  &c.,  should  be,  "and  the 
Lord,  the  God  of  the  spirits  of  the  prophets,  sent  his  angel,"  &c. 

8,  9.  Comp.  xix.  10. 

10.  The  prophecy  must  be  made  as  widely  known  as  possible, 
since  the  time  of  its  fulfilment  is  near.  The  reverse  of  this  is 
found  in  Dan.  xii.  4. 

11.  Eead,  "He  that  is  unrighteous,  let  him  continue  to  do 
unrighteousness ;  and  he  that  is  filthy,  let  him  continue  to  do 
filthily ;  and  he  that  is  righteous,  let  him  continue  to  do  rigli- 
teousness ;  and  he  that  is  holy,  let  him  continue  to  be  holy." — 
Every  one  may  as  well  continue  to  live  as  he  has  hitherto  done. 
The  time  is  so  short,  that  any  change  he  may  make  in  his  con- 
duct will  be  of  no  account.    Comp.  1  Cor.  vii.  29  sqq. ;  Dan.  xii.  10. 

12.  \_And :  the  best  MSS.  omit.] — Shall  he  should  be  "  is." 
14.  Eead,  "  Blessed  are  they  that  wash  their  robes,  that  they 

may  have,"  &c. :  see  notes  on  iii.  4,  and  comp.  also  vii.  14. — That 
they  may  have  right  to  the  tree  of  life:  i.e.  that  they  may  receive 
authority  to  enjoy  its  fruits. 


xxii.  15 — 21]  REVELATION.  273 

15.  Eead,  "  Out  with  the  dogs,"  &c. — Dogs  were  regarded  by 
the  Hebrews  as  unclean  beasts  (Is.  Ixvi.  3).  Here  the  word  is 
used  as  a  general  term  for  moral  uncleanness  (comp.  Matt.  vii.  6  ; 
Phil.  iii.  2). 

16.  Comp.  ii^  28;  Is.  xi.  1.  —  To  testify,  &c.,  should  be  "to 
testify  these  things  to  you,  the  churches."  [This  was  Tischen- 
dorf 's  reading,  but  he  afterwards  relinquished  it  for  the  reading, 
"  to  testify  these  things  to  you  concerning  the  churches."] 

17.  The  bride :  i.  e.  the  believing  community,  which  forms  the 
population  of  the  new  Jerusalem  (comp.  xix.  7  sqq.,  xxi.  2,  9  sqq., 
and  2  Cor.  xi.  2). — [And  let  him  that  is  athirst,  &c. :  better,  "  And 
he  that  is  athirst,  let  him  come ;  he  that  will,  let  him  take  the 
water  of  life  freely"  (i.e.  without  payment.     Comp.  Is.  Iv.  1.)] 

18.  19.  Eead,  "  I  testify  unto  every  man,"  &c. :  viz.  that  it 
will  happen  to  him  as  is  said  immediately  after.  The  threat  which 
follows  is  directed  especially  against  copyists,  who  often  dealt 
very  arbitrarily  with  the  books  that  they  were  occupied  in  copy- 
ing, falsifying  them  by  omissions  or  additions  (comp.  Deut.  iv.  2). 
— For  should  be  omitted. — [Out  of  the  hook  of  life :  The  best 
MSS.  read,  "  from  the  tree  of  life."] — And  from  the  things  should 
be  omitted  [so  that  the  words  which  are  ivritten  in  this  hook  refer 
to  the  tree  of  life  and  the  holy  city]. 

20.  Eead,  "  He  that  testifieth  these  things  saith.  Yea,  I  come 
quickly.     Amen,  come,  Lord  Jesus." 

21.  Apostolic  farewell,  as  in  Paul's  Epistles  (Eom.  xvi.  24; 
1  Cor.  xvi.  23 ;  Gal.  vi.  18). — Amen  should  be  omitted.  [The 
best  MSS.  vary  between  "  The  grace  of  the  Lord  Jesus  be  with 
the  saints,"  and  "  The  grace  of  the  Lord  Jesus  be  with  all."] 


C.  Green  &  Sod,  Printers,  178,  Strand. 


List  of  the  "Works  published  in  the 

THEOLOGICAL  TEANSLATION  FUND  LIBRARY. 


Each  Yearns  Three  Volumes  for  2\s. 

The  First  Year  (1873) : 

1.  Keim  (Th.),  History  of  Jesus  of  Nazara.     Considered  in  its 

connection  with  tlie  ^National  Life  of  Israel,  and  related  in 
detail.  Second  Edition,  re-translated  by  Arthur  Eansom. 
Vol.  I.  Introduction  ;  Survey  of  Sources  ;  Sacred  and  Political 
Groundwork ;  Eehgious  Groundwork. 

2.  Baur  (F.  C.),  Paul,  the  Apostle  of  Jesus  Christ,  his  Life 

and  Work,  his  Epistles  and  Doctrine.  A  Contribution  to  a 
Critical  History  of  Primitive  Christianity.  Second  Edition,  by 
Rev.  Allan  Menzies.     Vol.  I. 

3.  Kuenen  (A.),   The  Eeligion  of  Israel  to  the  Fall  of  the 

Jewish  State.     Translated  by  A.  H.  May.     Vol.  I. 

The  Second  Year  (1874) : 

4.  Kuenen's  Religion  of  Israel,    Vol.  11.     Translated  by  A.  H. 

May. 

5.  Bleek's  Lectures  on  the  Apocalypse.    Edited  by  the  Rev.  Dr. 

S.  Davidson. 

6.  Baur's  Paul  ;  the  second  and  concluding  volume.    Translated  by 

the  Rev.  Allan  Menzies. 

The  Third  Year  (1875) : 

7.  Kuenen's  Religion  of  Israel  ;  the  third  and  concluding  voliime. 

8.  Zeller,  The  Acts  of  the  Apostles  critically  examined.     To 

which  is  prefixed,  Overbeck's  Introduction  from  De  Wette's 
Handbook,  translated  by  Joseph  Dare,  B.A.    Vol.  I. 

9.  Ewald's  Commentary  on  the  Prophets  of  the  Old  Testament. 

Translated  by  the  Eev.  J.  Frederick  Smith.  Vol.  I.  General 
Introduction;  Yoel,  Amos,  Hosea,  and  Zakharya  9 — 11. 

The  Fourth  Year  (1876) : 

10.  Zeller's  Acts  of  the  Apostles.     Vol.  II.  and  last. 

11.  Keim's  History  op  Jesus  of  ISTazara.     Vol.  II.     Translated  by 

the  Eev.  E.  M.  Geldart.  The  Sacred  Youth ;  Self-Eecognition ; 
Decision. 

12.  Ewald's  Prophets  of  the  Old  Testament.    Vol.  II.     Yesaya, 

Obadya,  Mikha. 

The  Fifth  Year  (1877) : 

13.  Paulinism  :  a  Contribution  to  the  History  of  Primitive  Christian 
15.       Theology.     By  Professor  0.  Pfleiderer,  of  Jena.     Translated  by 

E.  Peters.     2  vols. 

14.  Keim's  History  of  Jesus  of  ISTazara.    Translated  by  A.  Eansom. 

Vol.  III.  The  First  Preaching  ;  the  A¥orks  of  Jesus  ;  the 
Disciples ;  and  the  Apostolic  Mission. 


The  Sixth  Year  (1878) : 

16.  Baur's  (F.  C),  Church  History  of  the  First  Three  Centuries. 

Translated  from  the  third  German  Edition.  Edited  by  the 
Eev.  Allan  Menzies  (in  2  vols.).    Vol.  I. 

17.  Hausrath's   History   op   the   E"ew   Testament   Times.      The 

Time  of  Jesus.  Translated  by  the  Eevds.  C.  T.  Poynting  and 
P.  Quenzer  (in  2  vols.).     Vol.  I. 

18.  Ewald's  Commentary  on  the  Prophets  of  the  Old  Testament. 

Translated  by  the  Eev.  J.  Frederick  Smith.  Vol.  III.  JSTahum, 
Ssephanya,  Habaqquq,  Zakharya  12 — 14,  Yeremya. 

The  Seventh  Year  (1879) : 

19.  Keim's  History  of  Jesus  of  ISTazaea.    Vol.  IV.   The  Galilean 

Storms  ;  Signs  of  the  approaching  Fall ;  Eecognition  of  the 
Messiah. 

20.  Baur's  Church  History.    Vol.  II.  and  last. 

21.  Ewald's  Commentary  on  the  Prophets.     Vol.  IV.    Hezeqiel, 

Yesaya  xl. — Ixvi. 

The  Eighth  Year  (1880) : 

22.  Hausrath's  ISTew  Testament  Times.    The  Time  of  Jesns.    Vol. 

II.  and  last. 
2-3.  Ewald's  Commentary  on  the  Psalms.     Translated  by  the  Eev. 

24.  E.  Johnson,  M.A.     2  vols. 

The  Ninth  Year  (1881) : 

25.  Keim's  History  of  Jesus  of  N'azaea.     Vol.  V.  The  IMessianic 

Progress  to  Jerusalem. 

26.  Ewald's   Commentary   on   the   Prophets.      Vol.  V.  and  last. 

Haggai,  Zakharya,  Malaki,  Yona,  Barukh,  Daniel. 

27.  A  Protestant  Commentary  on  the  Books  of  the  K"ew  Tes- 

tament :  with  General  and  Special  Introductions.  Edited  by 
Professors  P.  W.  Schmidt  and  E.  von  Holzendorff.  Translated 
from  the  Third  German  Edition  by  the  Eev.  F.  H.  Jones,  B.A. 
(in  3  vols.).     Vol.  I.  Matthew  to  Acts. 

The  Tenth  Year  (1882) : 

28.  Ewald's  Commentary  on  the  Book  of  Job.     Translated  by  the 

Eev.  J.  Frederick  Smith  (in  1  vol.). 

29.  Protestant  Commentary.      Vol.   II.    The  Pauline  Epistles  to 

Galatians. 

30.  Keim's  History  of  Jesus  op  ISTazara.     Vol.  VI.  and  last. 

The  Eleventh  Year  (1883-84)  : 

31.  Protestant  Commentary.     Vol.  III.  and  last. 

Beyond  these,  the  following  Works  are  in  the  hands  of  Trans- 
lators, and  will  be  included  in  the  next  years'  Subscriptions : 

Schrader  (Professor  E.)  The  Old  Testament  and  Cuneiform 

Inscriptions  (in  2  vols.). 
Pfleiderer's  Philosophy  of  Eeligion.    Translated  by  the  Eev. 

Alexander  Stewart,  of  Dundee. 


14,  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London; 
20,  South  Frederick  Street,  Edinburgh. 


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vide  also  Testament, 


2 


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